Foundations of Strategic Leadership

Introduction

Strategic leadership is the capacity to give purposeful direction to an organisation while responding intelligently to changing circumstances. It involves more than occupying a senior position. A strategic leader interprets the environment, clarifies purpose, makes choices about priorities, aligns people and resources, and creates conditions for sustainable performance.

Organisations operate in conditions of uncertainty. Customers change their preferences, technologies develop, competitors enter markets, regulations evolve, and social expectations increase. In such circumstances, routine administration is insufficient. Leaders must decide what the organisation should become, where it should compete, how it should create value, and how it should remain responsible to stakeholders.

This chapter establishes the foundations for studying strategic leadership and decision making. It defines strategy, leadership, strategic management, and decision making; distinguishes strategic leadership from operational management; and examines the roles, competencies, and organisational levels of strategic leaders.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define strategy, leadership, strategic management, and decision making.
2. Explain how strategic leadership differs from operational management.
3. Describe the principal roles performed by strategic leaders.
4. Identify competencies required for effective strategic leadership.
5. Distinguish strategic leadership at corporate, business, functional, and frontline levels.
6. Apply basic strategic leadership concepts to an organisational situation.
7. Recognise ethical, governance, and implementation issues in strategic decisions.

1. The Meaning of Strategy

The word strategy is derived from the Greek term strategos, associated with the art of generalship. In contemporary organisations, strategy refers to an integrated pattern of choices concerning long-term direction, scope, use of resources, and relationships with stakeholders. Strategy is not simply a statement of ambition. It connects purpose with choices and actions.

A useful working definition is:

Strategy is a coherent set of long-term choices that positions an organisation to achieve its purpose and create value in a particular environment.

Four elements are central to this definition:

• Direction: where the organisation intends to go.
• Scope: the markets, services, products, regions, or activities in which it will operate.
• Advantage: why stakeholders should choose or support the organisation rather than alternatives.
• Configuration: how resources, capabilities, processes, and relationships will be arranged to support the chosen direction.

Strategy necessarily involves choice. An organisation cannot pursue every attractive opportunity with equal intensity. Choosing to invest in one area normally means delaying, reducing, or abandoning another. Therefore, strategy includes both decisions about what to do and decisions about what not to do.

Strategy as Plan, Pattern, Position, and Perspective

Henry Mintzberg identified several ways of understanding strategy. Strategy may be:

• a plan: an intended course of action;
• a ploy: a specific manoeuvre designed to influence a competitor or stakeholder;
• a pattern: consistency in behaviour over time;
• a position: the organisation’s relationship to its environment, customers, and competitors; and
• a perspective: a shared way of seeing the organisation and its world.

These meanings show why a formal strategic plan is not the whole of strategy. An organisation may publish a plan but behave differently. Conversely, a consistent pattern may emerge even without a comprehensive written document. Effective leadership therefore compares intended strategy with realised strategy and investigates the reasons for any difference.

Strategic Intent and Organisational Purpose

Strategic intent expresses a significant long-term aspiration. It may concern growth, social impact, service quality, innovation, resilience, or leadership in a particular field. Strategic intent becomes useful when it is translated into a clear mission, measurable objectives, priorities, and resource commitments.

Purpose answers the question, “Why does this organisation exist?” A mission describes its primary contribution, while a vision describes a desired future state. Values indicate principles that guide behaviour and choices. These concepts should be connected rather than treated as slogans.

For example, a community health organisation might define its purpose as improving access to preventative care. Its vision could be equitable primary healthcare for underserved communities. Its strategy might include mobile clinics, digital appointment systems, partnerships with local authorities, and investment in culturally competent staff.

2. Leadership and Strategic Leadership

Leadership is a process through which a person or group influences others to understand and pursue shared purposes. Leadership involves influence, relationships, direction, judgement, and responsibility. It is not identical to authority. Authority comes from a formal role; leadership may also arise from expertise, credibility, character, or the ability to mobilise collective action.

Strategic leadership is the process of influencing people and shaping organisational decisions so that the organisation can achieve long-term objectives while remaining responsive, ethical, and resilient. It combines strategic thinking with leadership practice.

A strategic leader therefore asks questions such as:

• What changes are occurring in our environment?
• What opportunities and threats may emerge?
• What value should we create, and for whom?
• Which capabilities will be essential in the future?
• What must we stop doing in order to pursue our priorities?
• How can people understand, support, and implement the strategy?
• What are the ethical and social consequences of our choices?

Strategic leadership is both outward-looking and inward-looking. Outward-looking leaders monitor markets, technologies, institutions, communities, and competitors. Inward-looking leaders assess culture, capabilities, processes, talent, resources, and readiness for change.

Strategic Leadership and Visionary Leadership

Visionary leadership emphasises an attractive picture of the future and the ability to inspire people. Strategic leadership includes vision but extends beyond inspiration. It also requires analysis, prioritisation, governance, implementation, learning, and accountability. A leader who communicates an inspiring vision but allocates resources inconsistently is not exercising effective strategic leadership.

Strategic Leadership and Ethical Leadership

Ethical leadership concerns the principles and standards used in exercising influence. Strategic leadership must be ethical because strategic decisions affect employees, customers, communities, investors, suppliers, and the natural environment. A strategy that increases short-term financial results by deceiving customers or exploiting workers may be commercially successful for a time, but it is not responsible strategic leadership.

3. Strategic Management

Strategic management is the systematic process through which an organisation develops, implements, evaluates, and renews its strategy. It is broader than strategic planning because it includes action, learning, adaptation, and control.

A commonly used strategic management cycle contains five connected activities:

1. Environmental analysis: examining external opportunities, threats, trends, and stakeholder expectations.
2. Internal analysis: assessing resources, capabilities, culture, performance, and weaknesses.
3. Strategic choice: selecting a direction and deciding how the organisation will create value.
4. Implementation: aligning people, structures, budgets, systems, and processes with the strategy.
5. Evaluation and learning: monitoring results, testing assumptions, and revising actions where necessary.

The cycle is presented as a sequence for learning purposes, but in practice it is iterative. New information may require an organisation to revisit its analysis or reconsider its choices.

Figure: The strategic management cycle. Evaluation and learning can trigger revision of any earlier activity.

Strategic management is not the exclusive responsibility of the chief executive. Senior leaders normally carry primary accountability, but effective strategy depends on information and action throughout the organisation. Employees who interact with customers, operate systems, or deliver services often possess knowledge that senior leaders need. Strategic management is therefore both a leadership responsibility and an organisational capability.

4. Decision Making in Strategic Contexts

Decision making is the process of identifying a choice, comparing alternatives, and selecting and implementing a course of action. Strategic decisions differ from routine decisions in several ways:

A rational decision process normally includes:

1. defining the issue;
2. identifying objectives and decision criteria;
3. generating alternatives;
4. assessing evidence, risks, and consequences;
5. selecting an option;
6. implementing the decision; and
7. reviewing outcomes and learning.

However, strategic decision makers rarely possess complete information. Herbert Simon described this condition as bounded rationality: decision makers try to be rational but are limited by time, information, cognitive capacity, and organisational pressures. They may therefore select an option that is satisfactory rather than theoretically optimal.

Strategic leaders should also recognise common biases. Confirmation bias involves favouring information that supports existing beliefs. Overconfidence bias causes leaders to underestimate uncertainty or overestimate their own judgement. Escalation of commitment occurs when decision makers continue investing in an unsuccessful course because they have already invested resources. Structured challenge, independent review, scenario analysis, and clear stopping rules can reduce these risks.

Evidence, Judgement, and Intuition

Evidence is essential, but evidence does not eliminate judgement. Data may be incomplete, contradictory, or based on assumptions. Intuition can be valuable when it is grounded in deep experience, but it should not be confused with impulse or personal preference. Strong strategic decisions combine relevant evidence, informed judgement, stakeholder insight, and explicit consideration of uncertainty.

A practical decision record should state:

• the decision required;
• the assumptions being made;
• the alternatives considered;
• the criteria used;
• the main risks and mitigations;
• who has authority and accountability; and
• when the decision will be reviewed.

5. Strategic Leadership versus Operational Management

Strategic leadership and operational management are complementary, not competing, activities. Strategic leadership establishes direction and ensures long-term viability. Operational management converts direction into reliable day-to-day performance.

For example, deciding to introduce a digital service platform is a strategic decision because it affects capabilities, investment, customer relationships, and future positioning. Ensuring that staff use the platform correctly, appointments are scheduled, and service standards are met is primarily operational management. Both are necessary. A sound strategy without execution produces little value; efficient operations without strategic direction may optimise activities that no longer matter.

The distinction should not be interpreted rigidly. Operational problems can become strategic when they reveal a serious capability gap or threaten organisational survival. Likewise, strategic leaders must understand operational realities. Strategic leadership that ignores implementation is detached from practice.

6. Roles of Strategic Leaders

Strategic leaders perform several overlapping roles.

Direction Setter

The direction setter clarifies purpose, vision, priorities, and desired outcomes. This role requires making choices that are understandable to employees and stakeholders. Direction should be sufficiently clear to guide action but not so rigid that learning becomes impossible.

Environmental Interpreter

Strategic leaders monitor external and internal conditions and interpret their significance. They distinguish temporary events from structural trends and identify assumptions that may no longer be valid. This role includes listening to customers, employees, regulators, partners, and communities.

Resource Allocator

Strategy becomes credible through resource allocation. Leaders decide how money, talent, time, technology, and managerial attention will be distributed. If an organisation claims that innovation is a priority but allocates no budget, skills, or time to it, the stated strategy lacks credibility.

Organisational Architect

Leaders shape structures, responsibilities, systems, incentives, and governance arrangements. They consider whether the organisation is designed to support its strategy. A strategy requiring rapid collaboration may fail in a structure that creates isolated departments and slow approval processes.

Culture Builder

Culture consists of shared assumptions, values, and patterns of behaviour. Strategic leaders influence culture through what they reward, tolerate, measure, and model. Culture cannot be changed merely by issuing a statement; it changes when leadership behaviour, systems, and everyday decisions reinforce new expectations.

Change Sponsor

Strategic change often creates uncertainty and resistance. Change sponsors explain why change is necessary, provide resources, address concerns, and maintain momentum. They should distinguish legitimate concerns from resistance based on misinformation, while treating both as signals requiring attention.

Ethical Steward and Governance Participant

Strategic leaders protect the organisation’s integrity and long-term legitimacy. They promote transparency, comply with relevant laws and policies, manage conflicts of interest, and consider effects on stakeholders who have limited power. They also ensure that authority is subject to oversight rather than personal discretion.

Sense Maker and Communicator

In ambiguous situations, people seek explanations. Strategic leaders create shared understanding by communicating what is known, what is uncertain, what has been decided, and what remains open. Honest communication is more credible than false certainty.

7. Competencies of Strategic Leaders

Competencies combine knowledge, skills, behaviour, and judgement. Important strategic leadership competencies include the following.

Systems Thinking

Systems thinking views the organisation as part of an interconnected system. A decision in one area may produce consequences elsewhere. For example, reducing service staff may lower costs but increase waiting times, complaints, employee turnover, and reputational damage. Systems thinking helps leaders identify feedback loops, interdependencies, and unintended consequences.

Strategic and Analytical Thinking

Strategic leaders analyse trends, compare alternatives, test assumptions, and identify patterns. They should be able to interpret financial, operational, market, and human information without reducing every issue to a single metric.

Future Orientation

Future-oriented leaders consider multiple plausible futures rather than relying on one forecast. Scenario planning is especially useful where uncertainty is high. A scenario is not a prediction; it is a structured description of a possible future used to test the robustness of a strategy.

Judgement Under Uncertainty

Leaders must decide when evidence is incomplete. This requires assessing probability where possible, considering consequences, distinguishing reversible from irreversible commitments, and deciding when further information is worth the delay.

Communication and Influence

Strategic leaders translate complexity into clear messages for different audiences. They listen actively, negotiate priorities, and build coalitions. Influence is stronger when supported by competence, fairness, reliability, and trust.

Emotional and Social Intelligence

Self-awareness helps leaders recognise how their behaviour affects others. Empathy supports understanding of stakeholder concerns, while social awareness helps leaders navigate relationships and conflict. Emotional intelligence does not mean avoiding difficult conversations; it means handling them constructively.

Learning Agility

Learning-agile leaders revise their views when evidence changes. They encourage experimentation, treat carefully designed failure as information, and establish review mechanisms. They avoid confusing persistence with commitment to an obsolete assumption.

Ethical Courage

Strategic leaders may need to challenge powerful stakeholders, reject attractive but harmful opportunities, or disclose disappointing information. Ethical courage is the willingness to act according to sound principles despite personal or organisational pressure.

Digital and Data Literacy

Contemporary leaders need not be technical specialists, but they should understand data quality, cybersecurity, privacy, automation, and the limitations of analytical models. They must ask how data were collected, whether measures are relevant, and who may be disadvantaged by a technology-enabled decision.

8. Levels of Strategic Leadership

Strategic leadership operates at several organisational levels. The exact titles differ between organisations, but the underlying responsibilities are broadly similar.

Corporate or Enterprise Level

At the corporate level, leaders determine the overall portfolio and identity of the organisation. They may decide which sectors or markets to enter, how to distribute capital, whether to acquire or partner, and how to balance financial, social, and stakeholder objectives.

Business or Divisional Level

Business-level leaders develop strategies for a particular product, service, market, or division. They determine how the unit will compete or create distinctive value. Their decisions may involve customer segments, service design, pricing, quality, partnerships, and capability development.

Functional Level

Functional leaders translate broader strategy into plans for areas such as finance, human resources, marketing, information technology, operations, or procurement. They ensure that functional priorities reinforce rather than contradict the organisation’s direction.

Team and Frontline Level

Supervisors and frontline leaders implement strategy through everyday decisions. They allocate work, solve problems, coach employees, communicate priorities, and provide upward information. Their role is strategic when their decisions affect service quality, customer trust, safety, innovation, or organisational learning.

The levels are interdependent. Corporate leaders may provide direction, but frontline employees often determine how stakeholders experience the strategy. Effective strategic leadership therefore requires vertical alignment and two-way communication.

9. An Applied Illustrative Case: Northbridge Community Transport

Background

Northbridge Community Transport is a fictional not-for-profit organisation that provides low-cost transport for older adults and people with mobility limitations. Its services are funded by a combination of municipal grants, user fees, and charitable donations. Demand has increased, but the organisation faces rising fuel costs, volunteer shortages, and competition from app-based transport providers.

Problem

The board proposes purchasing a fleet of electric vehicles immediately. Some managers support the proposal because it would reduce fuel consumption and demonstrate environmental responsibility. Others argue that the organisation lacks charging infrastructure and technical expertise. Frontline coordinators report that the more urgent problem is unreliable scheduling and difficulty recruiting drivers.

The board must decide whether to invest in electric vehicles, improve current operations, form a partnership with a commercial provider, or combine several options.

Analysis

The chief executive establishes a strategic decision process. First, the team clarifies the purpose: provide accessible, reliable, and financially sustainable transport. Second, it analyses the environment and internal capability.

External factors include demographic growth, environmental expectations, grant requirements, fuel prices, technology, and competitor behaviour. Internal factors include driver availability, maintenance capability, scheduling systems, cash reserves, and service knowledge.

The team identifies several assumptions:

• demand will continue to increase;
• electric vehicles will have lower operating costs over their useful life;
• charging access can be secured;
• passengers value reliability at least as much as vehicle technology; and
• staff and volunteers can be trained to operate new systems.

Approach and Solution

Rather than treating the decision as a choice between immediate purchase and no change, the leaders develop a staged strategy. They will:

1. improve scheduling and route coordination;
2. negotiate access to existing public charging facilities;
3. pilot two electric vehicles on suitable routes;
4. establish measures for reliability, cost, accessibility, emissions, and user satisfaction;
5. strengthen driver recruitment and training; and
6. review the pilot after six months before committing to wider fleet replacement.

This approach distinguishes strategic direction from operational action. The strategic direction is to become a reliable and environmentally responsible transport provider. The operational actions test whether the organisation has the capability to achieve that direction.

Outcome

In this illustrative case, the pilot reduces fuel use on selected routes and improves the organisation’s understanding of charging requirements. However, the evaluation also shows that scheduling failures—not vehicle type—remain the largest source of customer dissatisfaction. The organisation therefore invests further in scheduling software and coordinator training before expanding the electric fleet.

Learning Points

The case illustrates that:

• strategic decisions should begin with purpose and stakeholder value;
• a fashionable solution may not address the central problem;
• pilot projects can reduce uncertainty before major commitment;
• implementation capability is part of strategic analysis;
• operational data can improve strategic choices; and
• responsible leaders measure both benefits and unintended consequences.

10. Governance, Ethics, and Contemporary Challenges

Strategic leadership occurs within systems of governance. Governance defines how authority is exercised, how decisions are monitored, and how leaders are held accountable. Boards, regulators, professional standards, policies, and stakeholder expectations may all shape strategic choices.

Important governance practices include clear delegation of authority, accurate reporting, risk oversight, conflict-of-interest controls, independent challenge, and protection for people who report misconduct. Governance should not be regarded merely as bureaucracy. It can protect organisational legitimacy and improve decision quality.

Ethical strategic leadership requires attention to fairness, privacy, safety, inclusion, labour conditions, environmental effects, and intergenerational consequences. Leaders should ask not only whether a decision is legal, but also whether it is fair, transparent, defensible, and consistent with the organisation’s stated values.

Technology and artificial intelligence can support environmental scanning, forecasting, customer service, and resource planning. Nevertheless, AI-generated recommendations may reflect biased data, obscure reasoning, or create privacy risks. Human leaders remain accountable for decisions. Good practice includes checking data quality, documenting assumptions, testing for discriminatory effects, protecting confidential information, and retaining meaningful human oversight.

Contemporary organisations also face volatility, geopolitical disruption, climate risk, cybersecurity threats, remote and hybrid work, and pressure for social accountability. These conditions increase the value of resilience, adaptability, stakeholder dialogue, and scenario thinking. They do not eliminate the need for long-term direction; they make disciplined direction more important.

11. Best Practices for Emerging Strategic Leaders

A diploma-level practitioner can strengthen strategic leadership by adopting the following practices:

1. Begin with purpose and the needs of important stakeholders.
2. Separate facts, assumptions, interpretations, and preferences.
3. Examine both the external environment and internal capability.
4. Make priorities explicit and acknowledge trade-offs.
5. Involve people who possess operational and stakeholder knowledge.
6. Use evidence without pretending that uncertainty has disappeared.
7. Consider ethical, social, environmental, and financial consequences.
8. Match strategy with budgets, structures, skills, and incentives.
9. Use pilots and staged commitments where uncertainty is high.
10. Establish measures, review dates, and learning mechanisms.
11. Communicate decisions clearly, including what is not yet known.
12. Model the behaviours expected from others.

Chapter Summary

Strategy is a coherent set of long-term choices concerning direction, scope, advantage, and resource configuration. Leadership is the process of influencing people toward shared purposes. Strategic leadership applies leadership to long-term organisational direction, capability, change, and responsible value creation. Strategic management is the broader cycle of analysing conditions, making choices, implementing action, and learning from results.

Strategic decisions are broad, consequential, uncertain, and often difficult to reverse. They require evidence and judgement, while recognising bounded rationality and decision biases. Strategic leadership differs from operational management: the former concentrates on purpose, positioning, capability, and change, while the latter focuses on reliable execution and current performance. Both are essential and mutually dependent.

Strategic leaders set direction, interpret the environment, allocate resources, shape culture and structures, sponsor change, communicate meaning, and uphold ethical governance. They require systems thinking, analytical ability, judgement, communication, emotional intelligence, learning agility, ethical courage, and digital literacy. Strategic leadership operates at corporate, business, functional, team, and frontline levels. Effective organisations connect these levels through alignment, participation, implementation, and continuous learning.

Key Terms

Strategy: A coherent set of long-term choices that positions an organisation to achieve its purpose and create value.

Strategic leadership: Influencing people and shaping decisions to achieve long-term organisational objectives responsibly.

Leadership: The process of influencing people toward shared purposes.

Strategic management: The process of analysing, choosing, implementing, evaluating, and renewing strategy.

Decision making: Identifying alternatives, evaluating them, selecting an action, and reviewing its consequences.

Strategic intent: A significant long-term organisational aspiration.

Mission: A statement of an organisation’s primary purpose and contribution.

Vision: A description of a desired future state.

Values: Principles that guide organisational behaviour and choices.

Operational management: Coordinating resources and processes to achieve current performance requirements.

Bounded rationality: The limitation of decision making by incomplete information, time, and cognitive capacity.

Confirmation bias: The tendency to favour information that supports existing beliefs.

Systems thinking: Understanding relationships, interdependencies, and feedback across a whole system.

Organisational capability: The combined resources, skills, processes, and routines that enable performance.

Stakeholder: An individual or group affected by, or able to affect, an organisation.

Strategic choice: Selection of a direction and method for creating value.

Implementation: Translating strategic choices into coordinated action and resource allocation.

Governance: Systems through which authority, accountability, oversight, and control are exercised.

Scenario planning: Developing plausible alternative futures to test strategic assumptions and choices.

Strategic alignment: Consistency among purpose, strategy, structure, resources, culture, and action.

Review Questions

Short Answer Questions

1. What is meant by strategy?
2. Define strategic leadership.
3. State two differences between strategic decisions and routine operational decisions.
4. What is bounded rationality?
5. Identify four competencies required by strategic leaders.

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain the relationship among strategy, strategic leadership, and strategic management.
2. Compare strategic leadership with operational management, using organisational examples.
3. Discuss the principal roles performed by strategic leaders.
4. Explain why ethical governance is important in strategic decision making.
5. Describe how strategic leadership operates at corporate, business, functional, and frontline levels.

Analytical / Application Questions

1. An organisation has an inspiring vision but continues to allocate nearly all resources to declining services. Analyse the strategic leadership problems involved and recommend corrective actions.
2. A manager wants to adopt an AI system because competitors are doing so, but employees report that the organisation’s data are incomplete and biased. How should the manager approach the decision?
3. Using the Northbridge Community Transport case, explain why a staged pilot may be preferable to an immediate full-scale investment. Identify the measures that should be reviewed before expansion.

Multiple Choice Questions with Answers

Question 1

Which statement best defines strategy?

A. A daily schedule for completing routine tasks

B. A coherent set of long-term choices about direction, scope, and value creation

C. A financial report prepared at the end of the year

D. A list of employee benefits

Correct Answer: B. A coherent set of long-term choices about direction, scope, and value creation

Question 2

What is the primary distinction between strategic leadership and operational management?

A. Strategic leadership concerns long-term direction, while operational management focuses mainly on reliable current execution

B. Strategic leadership is performed only by supervisors, while operational management is performed only by boards

C. Strategic leadership avoids decisions, while operational management makes all decisions

D. Strategic leadership is concerned only with finance, while operational management is concerned only with people

Correct Answer: A. Strategic leadership concerns long-term direction, while operational management focuses mainly on reliable current execution

Question 3

Which activity is part of the strategic management cycle?

A. Ignoring environmental change

B. Allocating resources without priorities

C. Evaluating results and learning from them

D. Replacing all judgement with intuition

Correct Answer: C. Evaluating results and learning from them

Question 4

Bounded rationality means that decision makers:

A. Always select the mathematically optimal option

B. Are limited by information, time, and cognitive capacity

C. Cannot use evidence in decision making

D. Make decisions only when complete information is available

Correct Answer: B. Are limited by information, time, and cognitive capacity

Question 5

A leader who ensures that budgets and talent support stated priorities is primarily performing which role?

A. Resource allocator

B. Environmental interpreter

C. External auditor

D. Frontline customer

Correct Answer: A. Resource allocator

Question 6

Which competency helps a leader recognise how a decision in one department may affect other parts of the organisation?

A. Systems thinking

B. Job specialisation

C. Routine supervision

D. Short-term forecasting only

Correct Answer: A. Systems thinking

Question 7

Which is an example of a strategic decision?

A. Assigning today’s staff lunch break

B. Approving a routine purchase within an existing budget

C. Choosing whether to enter a new national market

D. Checking whether a form is complete

Correct Answer: C. Choosing whether to enter a new national market

Question 8

Why is a pilot project often useful in conditions of uncertainty?

A. It guarantees that the final strategy will succeed

B. It allows the organisation to test assumptions before making a larger commitment

C. It removes the need for evaluation

D. It prevents stakeholders from contributing information

Correct Answer: B. It allows the organisation to test assumptions before making a larger commitment

Question 9

Which statement about ethical strategic leadership is most accurate?

A. A decision is ethical whenever it is profitable

B. Legal compliance is never relevant to strategy

C. Leaders should consider fairness, transparency, stakeholder effects, and long-term consequences

D. Ethics applies only to non-profit organisations

Correct Answer: C. Leaders should consider fairness, transparency, stakeholder effects, and long-term consequences

Question 10

At which level would leaders typically decide the overall portfolio of markets or businesses in which an organisation operates?

A. Corporate or enterprise level

B. Frontline level

C. Individual task level

D. Temporary project level only

Correct Answer: A. Corporate or enterprise level