Job Analysis and Competency Requirements

Introduction

Recruitment and selection are only as reliable as the information on which they are based. Before an organisation advertises a vacancy, writes selection criteria, or chooses an interview method, it must understand the work to be performed and the characteristics required for effective performance. Job analysis provides this foundation.

Job analysis is a systematic process of collecting, examining and recording information about a job. It identifies the job’s tasks, responsibilities, work context, relationships, performance requirements and required worker characteristics. The results are commonly presented through a job description, a person specification and a competency profile.

These documents are closely related but are not identical. A job description focuses primarily on the job itself; a person specification focuses on the person required to perform it; and a competency profile describes the behaviours and capabilities associated with effective performance. Together, they support fair recruitment, valid selection, performance management, training and workforce planning.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explain the purpose and process of job analysis.
2. Distinguish between a job, position, occupation, task and duty.
3. Prepare a basic job description.
4. Prepare a fair and evidence-based person specification.
5. Describe competencies using knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics.
6. Select suitable job-analysis methods for different situations.
7. Recognise ethical, legal and practical risks in job analysis.

1. The Foundations of Job Analysis

A job is a group of related duties and tasks performed by one or more people. A position is the set of duties performed by one individual in a particular organisation. Several positions may belong to the same job. For example, an organisation may have many positions titled Customer Service Officer, all belonging to the same job family.

An occupation is a broader category of related jobs found across organisations, such as nursing, accounting or information technology. A task is a distinct work activity with a beginning and an end, such as entering a customer order. A duty is a larger area of responsibility made up of related tasks, such as maintaining customer records.

Job analysis should be distinguished from job evaluation. Job analysis gathers information about work. Job evaluation uses information about jobs to assess their relative value for purposes such as grading and pay. Job analysis should also be distinguished from work design, which concerns how tasks are arranged to improve efficiency, motivation, safety or flexibility.

Why job analysis matters

Accurate job analysis helps an organisation to:

• define the purpose and boundaries of a role;
• write clear and realistic recruitment advertisements;
• identify essential and desirable selection criteria;
• choose valid selection methods;
• identify training and development needs;
• support performance appraisal;
• clarify reporting relationships and accountability;
• assist workforce planning and succession planning; and
• reduce discriminatory or irrelevant selection decisions.

Poor analysis can produce vague advertisements, inflated requirements, unsuitable interview questions and unfair decisions. For example, requiring a university degree for a role that mainly requires practical customer-handling skills may exclude capable applicants without demonstrating job relevance.

2. The Job-Analysis Process

Job analysis is not simply copying an old job description. A systematic process is needed because jobs change, employees may perform unofficial tasks, and existing documents may contain outdated assumptions.

Step 1: Define the purpose and scope

The analyst first identifies why the analysis is being conducted. The purpose may be recruitment, restructuring, training, pay review or compliance. The scope should specify whether the analysis concerns one position, a job family, a department or the whole organisation.

Step 2: Identify information sources

Useful sources include current jobholders, supervisors, subject-matter experts, organisational charts, workflow documents, performance standards, customer requirements and health-and-safety records. No single source is always sufficient. Jobholders understand daily activities, while supervisors may better understand accountability and expected results.

Step 3: Select collection methods

Common methods are observation, interviews, questionnaires, work diaries and document analysis. The choice depends on the nature of the work, available time and required accuracy.

Step 4: Collect information about the work

Information should cover:

• the purpose of the job;
• major duties and tasks;
• frequency and importance of tasks;
• expected outputs and standards;
• tools, equipment and systems used;
• reporting relationships;
• decision-making authority;
• internal and external contacts;
• physical, social and environmental conditions;
• risks and safety requirements; and
• knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics required.

Step 5: Verify the information

A draft should be reviewed by the jobholder, supervisor and, where relevant, HR or technical specialists. Differences should be investigated rather than automatically resolved by majority opinion. The analyst should distinguish between what employees currently do and what the organisation expects the role to do.

Step 6: Produce and approve the outputs

The information is converted into a job description, person specification and competency profile. The documents should be approved by the appropriate manager and reviewed periodically, especially after technological, legal or organisational change.

3. The Job Description

A job description is a written statement of the principal purpose, duties and conditions of a job. It describes the work, not the personal qualities of a particular employee.

A practical job description normally includes:

Duties should be written with clear action verbs, such as coordinates, prepares, verifies, resolves, maintains and monitors. They should describe outcomes where possible. “Processes customer orders accurately and within agreed service times” is more useful than “deals with orders.”

A job description should be sufficiently specific to guide recruitment but not so restrictive that it prevents reasonable flexibility. The phrase “other reasonable duties consistent with the purpose of the role” may be appropriate, but it should not be used to conceal unlimited or unrelated responsibilities.

Example: basic job description

Job title: Customer Service Officer

Job purpose: To provide accurate and timely assistance to customers through telephone, email and digital channels, while recording interactions in the customer relationship system.

Reports to: Customer Service Supervisor

Main duties:

• respond to customer enquiries using approved information;
• process routine orders, returns and service requests;
• record contacts accurately in the customer relationship system;
• escalate complaints and complex cases according to procedure;
• protect customer and organisational information; and
• contribute to service-quality improvement.

Performance indicators: accuracy of records, response times, adherence to procedures, customer feedback and appropriate escalation of complex cases.

4. The Person Specification

A person specification describes the qualifications, experience, capabilities and other characteristics required to perform the job. It should be derived from the job analysis rather than from an idealised image of the “perfect” applicant.

Requirements are often classified as essential or desirable. Essential criteria are necessary for competent performance at entry or within a clearly stated period of development. Desirable criteria may improve performance but are not necessary. Treating every preference as essential can unnecessarily reduce the applicant pool and create unfair barriers.

A person specification may contain:

• education or professional qualifications;
• relevant experience;
• technical knowledge;
• practical and interpersonal skills;
• cognitive or physical abilities where genuinely job-related;
• behavioural characteristics;
• language or communication requirements; and
• legal or licence requirements.

Criteria should be observable, job-related and assessable. “Good personality” is vague and unsuitable. “Remains courteous and constructive when responding to dissatisfied customers” is more specific and can be assessed through structured questions or role-play.

Qualifications and experience

Qualifications should be required only when they are necessary for the work, legally required, or a reliable indicator of relevant preparation. Experience requirements should state the type and level of experience needed rather than using arbitrary years. “Experience handling telephone and digital customer enquiries” is generally more meaningful than “at least five years’ experience.”

Avoiding inflated criteria

A common error is credential inflation, in which qualifications become more demanding even though the work has not changed. Another is confusing performance at an advanced level with the requirements of an entry-level role. Organisations should consider whether a capability can reasonably be developed through induction or training.

5. Competency Requirements: KSAOs

A competency is a capability or characteristic associated with effective performance in a particular role or context. Competency frameworks vary, but a useful foundation is the KSAO model:

• Knowledge: information and understanding required for the work;
• Skills: learned proficiency in performing tasks;
• Abilities: relatively enduring capacities to perform activities; and
• Other characteristics: personal attributes, attitudes, values, licences or conditions relevant to performance.

For example, a payroll assistant may require knowledge of payroll procedures, skill in using spreadsheet and payroll software, ability to detect numerical discrepancies, and other characteristics such as confidentiality and reliability.

KSAOs should not be listed as isolated labels. Each should be connected to a work requirement and an assessment method.

Competencies and performance levels

Competencies can be described at levels. For example:

• Basic: follows procedures and records information accurately;
• Proficient: handles routine cases independently and identifies errors;
• Advanced: resolves complex cases, coaches others and improves procedures.

Levels should be supported by behavioural indicators. This makes the competency more useful for recruitment and development and reduces subjective judgments.

Technical and behavioural competencies

Technical competencies concern job-specific knowledge and skills, such as operating accounting software or maintaining laboratory equipment. Behavioural competencies concern how work is performed, such as teamwork, ethical conduct, communication and problem-solving. Both may be relevant, but behavioural language must remain connected to observable work behaviour rather than personality stereotypes.

6. Linking Analysis to Selection

Job analysis is valuable because it connects the work to the selection decision. Each important requirement should be assessed by one or more methods capable of producing relevant evidence.

A simple selection matrix can be used:

The principle of content validity is important: an assessment should represent work tasks or requirements that matter in the job. A typing exercise has stronger content relevance for a data-entry role than for a job whose main requirement is field negotiation.

Structured interviews are generally preferable to unstructured conversations because all applicants can be asked comparable questions and evaluated against predefined criteria. Questions should be based on the job analysis. For example: “Describe a time when you had to explain a complicated procedure to a customer. What did you do, and what was the result?”

7. Ethical, Legal and Governance Considerations

Job analysis affects access to employment and therefore carries ethical responsibilities.

Relevance and non-discrimination

Requirements should be directly related to job performance. Organisations should avoid criteria that indirectly exclude groups without a legitimate business reason. Examples may include unnecessary physical requirements, assumptions about availability outside normal hours, or culturally narrow ideas about communication style.

Accessibility and reasonable adjustment

A job should distinguish essential outcomes from a particular method of achieving them. A person may be able to achieve the required result with assistive technology or an alternative work arrangement. Selection documents should not confuse disability-related limitations with inability to perform essential functions.

Privacy and confidentiality

Job analysis may involve employee interviews, observation and performance records. Information should be collected for a legitimate purpose, accessed only by authorised people and stored securely. Personal opinions should not be presented as objective job requirements.

Transparency and auditability

The organisation should be able to explain why a criterion exists and how it will be assessed. Records of sources, approvals and review dates help demonstrate consistency and support later investigation of complaints.

Professional judgement

Job analysis is not value-free. Analysts decide which tasks are important, whose evidence is trusted and how requirements are expressed. Consultation with diverse stakeholders reduces the risk that the analysis reflects only the perspective of a powerful manager or a single incumbent.

8. Technology and Contemporary Developments

Digital systems can support job analysis by aggregating workflow data, analysing task frequencies and identifying changing skill requirements. Online questionnaires and collaboration tools can make participation easier across locations. Skills databases can also help organisations compare related roles and identify development pathways.

Artificial intelligence may assist with drafting job descriptions or grouping similar tasks, but it should not independently determine selection criteria. AI-generated wording can reproduce biased assumptions, overstate requirements or rely on patterns that are not job-related. Human subject-matter review, documentation of data sources and testing for adverse impact remain necessary. Confidential employee information should not be entered into an unauthorised system.

Contemporary work also creates challenges for analysis. Hybrid work changes communication, supervision and performance evidence. Automation may remove routine tasks while increasing the importance of monitoring, judgement and exception handling. Organisations should therefore review jobs as bundles of tasks rather than assuming that an old title represents a stable set of activities.

9. Illustrative Case: Updating a Service Adviser Role

Background

HarbourLink Utilities, a fictional regional provider, has recruited Service Advisers using a five-year-old job description. The document requires a university qualification and describes the job mainly as answering telephone enquiries. In practice, advisers now use web chat, process digital service requests, verify customer identity and refer vulnerable customers to specialist support.

Problem

Managers report inconsistent hiring decisions. Some new employees have strong academic qualifications but struggle with digital systems and difficult conversations. Applicants are also unclear about the role, and the organisation is concerned that the degree requirement excludes capable candidates.

Analysis

The HR officer observes advisers, interviews the supervisor and six jobholders, examines service-quality records and reviews escalation procedures. The analysis shows that the central outcomes are accurate identity verification, clear communication across channels, secure record keeping and appropriate judgement when a case is complex or sensitive.

The degree requirement is not supported by evidence. The jobholders use product knowledge and system skills learned through training rather than advanced academic theory. A revised person specification therefore identifies digital record-keeping skill, customer communication, attention to detail, confidentiality and the ability to follow escalation procedures. A general qualification is made desirable rather than essential.

Approach and solution

The revised process includes:

1. a realistic job description covering telephone, email and web-chat work;
2. a short work sample requiring applicants to record a customer interaction accurately;
3. a structured interview on handling a dissatisfied customer;
4. a situational question about protecting personal information; and
5. a planned induction module on products and systems.

Outcome

This illustrative case shows how job analysis can replace assumptions with evidence. The revised documents make the role clearer, broaden access to applicants with relevant capability and improve alignment between recruitment tests and actual work. The organisation should still monitor later performance and review whether the requirements predict successful outcomes.

Learning points

• Existing documents are evidence, not unquestionable truth.
• Selection criteria should reflect essential work outcomes.
• Training can be an alternative to unnecessarily demanding entry requirements.
• Competencies become useful when linked to observable behaviour and assessment methods.

10. Challenges and Limitations

Job analysis has several limitations. Jobs are dynamic, so a document may become inaccurate soon after approval. Employees may exaggerate the importance of their work or omit routine activities. Observation can influence behaviour, while interviews can reflect memory errors. Different departments may use the same title for substantially different work.

The analyst should therefore triangulate information from several sources, distinguish frequency from importance, record unusual but critical duties, and specify review dates. A short, accurate document is generally more useful than a long list of every conceivable activity.

A further limitation is that competency frameworks can become generic. Terms such as leadership, innovation and teamwork may appear in every role without explaining what they mean at a particular level. Competencies should be tailored to the job, expressed through behaviours and connected to valid assessment evidence.

Best-Practice Checklist

Before approving recruitment documents, ask:

• Is the purpose of the job clear?
• Are the principal duties based on current evidence?
• Are essential and desirable criteria separated?
• Is every requirement genuinely related to performance?
• Can each criterion be assessed fairly?
• Are behavioural competencies observable rather than vague?
• Have accessibility and non-discrimination been considered?
• Are privacy and confidentiality protected?
• Have the jobholder and supervisor reviewed the draft?
• Is a review date recorded?

Chapter Summary

Job analysis is the systematic study of work and is the foundation of effective recruitment and selection. It identifies tasks, duties, outputs, relationships, working conditions and the capabilities required for performance. Its main outputs are the job description, person specification and competency profile.

A job description explains the role and its responsibilities. A person specification identifies the essential and desirable characteristics of a suitable applicant. A competency profile organises requirements as knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics, preferably with observable performance indicators and levels.

Reliable analysis uses several information sources, verifies findings with relevant stakeholders and links each important requirement to an appropriate selection method. Ethical practice requires job-related criteria, non-discrimination, accessibility, privacy and transparent decision-making. Technology and AI may assist analysis, but human judgement and governance remain essential. Because jobs change, documents should be reviewed regularly.

Key Terms

Job analysis: A systematic process of collecting and evaluating information about a job.

Job: A group of related duties and tasks performed by one or more people.

Position: The duties performed by one individual in a particular organisation.

Occupation: A broad category of related jobs across organisations.

Task: A distinct work activity with a beginning and an end.

Duty: A larger responsibility made up of related tasks.

Job description: A statement of a job’s purpose, duties, relationships and conditions.

Person specification: A statement of the characteristics required of the jobholder.

Competency: A capability or characteristic associated with effective performance.

KSAO: Knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics.

Essential criterion: A requirement necessary for competent performance.

Desirable criterion: A useful but non-essential requirement.

Content validity: The extent to which an assessment represents relevant job requirements.

Critical incident: An example of behaviour linked to especially effective or ineffective performance.

Work sample: An assessment requiring an applicant to perform a task resembling actual work.

Credential inflation: The unnecessary raising of qualification requirements.

Job evaluation: The assessment of the relative value of jobs, often for grading or pay.

Reasonable adjustment: A change that enables a qualified person to participate or perform essential work.

Structured interview: An interview using comparable questions and predefined evaluation criteria.

Review Questions

Short Answer Questions

1. What is the purpose of job analysis?
2. Distinguish between a job description and a person specification.
3. What do the letters KSAO represent?
4. Give two methods used to collect job-analysis information.
5. Why should essential and desirable criteria be separated?

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain the main stages in a systematic job-analysis process.
2. Describe the contents of an effective job description.
3. Explain how competencies can improve recruitment and selection decisions.
4. Discuss ethical and legal considerations in preparing person specifications.
5. Compare observation, interviews and questionnaires as job-analysis methods.

Analytical / Application Questions

1. A manager wants to require a degree for an entry-level data-entry role. How would you investigate whether this requirement is justified?
2. Design three selection methods for a customer service role and link each method to a competency.
3. A job has changed because of automation and hybrid work. Explain how you would update its job description and competency profile.

Multiple Choice Questions with Answers

Question 1

What is the primary purpose of job analysis?

A. To determine an employee’s personal preferences

B. To systematically identify the content and requirements of work

C. To calculate the organisation’s annual profit

D. To replace all employee training

Correct Answer: B. To systematically identify the content and requirements of work

Question 2

Which document focuses mainly on the duties and purpose of a role?

A. Job description

B. Person specification

C. Training evaluation

D. Succession plan

Correct Answer: A. Job description

Question 3

In the KSAO model, what does the O represent?

A. Objectives

B. Outputs

C. Other characteristics

D. Occupations

Correct Answer: C. Other characteristics

Question 4

Which is the strongest example of an observable selection criterion?

A. Has a pleasant personality

B. Is highly ambitious

C. Communicates clearly with dissatisfied customers

D. Fits the organisation’s image

Correct Answer: C. Communicates clearly with dissatisfied customers

Question 5

Which job-analysis method involves recording activities over a period of time?

A. Work diary

B. Job evaluation

C. Credential review

D. Unstructured reference

Correct Answer: A. Work diary

Question 6

What is an essential criterion?

A. A preference held by the current jobholder

B. A requirement necessary for competent performance

C. A qualification that every applicant must possess regardless of relevance

D. A benefit offered after appointment

Correct Answer: B. A requirement necessary for competent performance

Question 7

Which principle requires a selection assessment to represent relevant work requirements?

A. Content validity

B. Credential inflation

C. Job rotation

D. Seniority

Correct Answer: A. Content validity

Question 8

Why should job-analysis information be collected from more than one source?

A. To make the job description longer

B. To avoid verifying any information

C. To improve accuracy through comparison of perspectives and evidence

D. To eliminate the need for management approval

Correct Answer: C. To improve accuracy through comparison of perspectives and evidence

Question 9

Which is an appropriate use of AI in job analysis?

A. Allowing AI to determine essential criteria without review

B. Using AI to assist drafting while humans verify relevance and bias

C. Entering confidential employee records into any public tool

D. Replacing all subject-matter experts

Correct Answer: B. Using AI to assist drafting while humans verify relevance and bias

Question 10

What is credential inflation?

A. Reducing a qualification requirement after training

B. Using several sources to analyse a job

C. Increasing qualification requirements without evidence that the work requires them

D. Assessing a candidate through a work sample

Correct Answer: C. Increasing qualification requirements without evidence that the work requires them