Foundations of OTT and New Media

Introduction and Context

Mass media has moved from a predominantly scheduled, one-way system to an interconnected environment in which audiences can select, share, comment on, create and sometimes financially support media. This transformation is not simply a change from television to mobile phones. It involves changes in distribution infrastructure, business models, audience behaviour, professional roles, regulation and the meaning of media ownership.

Traditional broadcasting depended on scarce distribution capacity. A television or radio station transmitted a scheduled stream from a central facility to a large audience. Digital networks have reduced some forms of scarcity and made it possible to distribute many programmes through internet protocols, searchable catalogues and personalised interfaces. However, digital media has created new forms of scarcity: audience attention, discoverability, premium rights, data quality, trust and reliable broadband capacity.

For managers in mass media, the central question is therefore not merely whether content is digital. It is how content is produced, packaged, distributed, monetised, measured and governed in a changing media ecosystem.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Explain the movement from traditional broadcasting to digital, on-demand and participatory media.
2. Distinguish OTT, connected television, streaming, social media, podcasts and creator platforms.
3. Use essential terminology relating to platforms, distribution, audiences, monetisation and measurement.
4. Analyse how technology and audience choice affect media management.
5. Identify major business, ethical, regulatory and operational challenges in new media.
6. Apply the concepts to a practical media strategy.

From Broadcasting to Networked Media

The traditional broadcasting model

Broadcasting is the distribution of audio or audiovisual programming from a relatively central source to many receivers. Terrestrial television, satellite television, cable television and radio all developed different technical systems, but they shared important institutional characteristics:

• programming was scheduled in advance;
• the broadcaster controlled the transmission timetable;
• audiences generally consumed the same programme at the same time;
• distribution capacity was limited and often regulated;
• advertising, sponsorship, licence fees or subscriptions funded operations;
• audience measurement was based largely on panels, ratings and reach estimates.

The broadcasting model created a powerful editorial gatekeeper. A channel selected programmes, determined their sequence and controlled access to the audience. The audience could choose among channels, but normally could not alter the programme itself or communicate directly with the broadcaster at scale.

Digitisation

Digitisation converted media content into data that can be stored, copied, edited and transmitted through computer networks. This made media more flexible, but digitisation alone did not automatically make a service “new media.” A digital television channel that still follows a fixed schedule remains institutionally similar to broadcasting.

Digital distribution introduced several important changes:

• content could be stored in large catalogues;
• programmes could be delivered to individual devices;
• search and recommendation systems could influence discovery;
• audience interaction could be recorded and analysed;
• distribution could be global, although rights and regulation remain territorial;
• users could contribute comments, ratings, remixes and original content.

The internet and the shift to on-demand access

Internet distribution uses packet-switched networks rather than a single continuous broadcast signal. A media file or live stream is divided into packets, routed through networks and reassembled by the receiving device. In practice, streaming services use buffering, encoding, content delivery networks and adaptive bitrate systems to make playback possible under varying network conditions.

On-demand media changes the temporal relationship between producer and audience. The user may select a programme at a convenient time, pause it, resume it on another device or consume an entire season in a short period. This is often called time-shifting or non-linear consumption.

On-demand access does not eliminate scheduling. Platforms still use release dates, notifications, home-page placement, live events and recommendation systems to shape attention. The difference is that scheduling is increasingly combined with user choice and algorithmic ordering.

Figure: A conceptual progression from scheduled broadcasting to participatory media. The stages overlap rather than replace one another.

Essential Concepts and Terminology

OTT

Over-the-top (OTT) refers to the delivery of audiovisual or other media services over internet networks without requiring the user to receive the service through the traditional managed television distribution package of a telecom, cable or satellite operator. The term originally described services that travelled “over” established distribution intermediaries. Today it commonly includes subscription video-on-demand services, advertising-supported video platforms, transactional rental services and broadcaster-owned internet services.

OTT is a distribution and service concept, not a single business model. An OTT service may be:

• SVOD: subscription video on demand, funded primarily by recurring payments;
• AVOD: advertising-supported video on demand;
• TVOD: transactional video on demand, where users rent or purchase individual titles;
• FAST: free ad-supported streaming television, usually organised into programmed linear channels;
• BVOD: broadcaster video on demand, in which a broadcaster distributes catch-up or original content online.

A service can combine these models. For example, a platform may offer a paid ad-free tier, a lower-priced ad-supported tier and individual premium rentals.

Streaming

Streaming is the technical process of delivering media so that it can be played while data continues to arrive, rather than requiring the entire file to be downloaded first. Streaming may be live or on demand. It is therefore not synonymous with OTT: streaming is a delivery method, whereas OTT describes a service relationship and distribution arrangement. A broadcaster may stream its linear channel, and an OTT platform may also permit downloads for offline playback.

Connected television and CTV

Connected television (CTV) means a television set or television environment connected to the internet. This may occur through a smart-TV operating system, a streaming stick, a set-top box or a connected game console. CTV is primarily a device and viewing environment. It is not identical to OTT, although OTT services are frequently consumed through CTV devices.

The distinction matters for management. A CTV advertising campaign may include several OTT applications and may be measured by household or device exposure. A mobile-first OTT service may have very different interface, bandwidth and audience characteristics.

Linear and non-linear services

A linear service presents programmes according to a schedule. A non-linear service allows the user to select content from a catalogue or initiate playback at a chosen time. FAST services demonstrate that internet distribution can reproduce a linear channel experience, while catch-up television demonstrates that a traditional broadcaster can offer non-linear access.

Social media

Social media consists of networked services that enable users and organisations to create profiles or accounts, publish content, interact with others and circulate material through social connections or algorithmic feeds. Social media is distinguished by its strong emphasis on interaction, visibility, sharing and community formation. It includes social networking, short-video, live-streaming, messaging and discussion platforms.

Social media is not simply a promotional channel. It can be a content-distribution system, a feedback environment, a creator marketplace, a customer-service channel and a source of audience data. Its business models commonly involve advertising, creator monetisation, commerce, subscriptions and virtual goods.

Podcasts and digital audio

A podcast is a digitally distributed audio programme, commonly organised as episodes and made available through feeds, applications or platforms. Podcasts may be downloaded or streamed. They range from professionally produced journalism and narrative series to informal creator-led discussions.

Podcast management involves commissioning, recording, editing, hosting, feed distribution, rights clearance, audience development and monetisation. Revenue may come from sponsorship, dynamically inserted advertising, subscriptions, donations, premium episodes or brand partnerships. Audio also includes music streaming, internet radio, live audio rooms and spoken-word services.

Creator platforms and user-generated content

A creator platform provides tools and infrastructure through which individuals or small teams produce, publish, distribute and monetise content. Creator platforms may offer editing tools, analytics, advertising revenue sharing, memberships, tipping, merchandising or brand-deal facilities.

User-generated content (UGC) is content produced by users rather than exclusively by a professional media organisation. The boundary between UGC and professional production is increasingly blurred. A creator may operate as an entrepreneur, producer, presenter, editor, rights holder and media brand simultaneously.

Platform, service, application and channel

These terms should not be treated as interchangeable:

• A platform provides infrastructure, rules, discovery mechanisms and commercial systems that enable multiple participants to publish or transact.
• A service is the user-facing media offering, such as a subscription video catalogue.
• An application is software through which a service is accessed.
• A channel is a stream or branded programming destination, either linear or catalogue-based.
• A publisher creates or controls content and may distribute it through several platforms.
• A distributor delivers content to audiences but may not own the content.

A company can occupy more than one role. This vertical integration can create efficiencies but may also raise competition and access concerns.

A Framework for Understanding New Media

A useful analytical framework considers five connected layers.

1. Content layer

This includes programmes, films, news, music, podcasts, games, live events, short videos and creator posts. Content has attributes such as genre, duration, language, exclusivity, freshness, production value and rights territory.

2. Technology layer

This includes broadband networks, encoding, storage, content delivery networks, applications, operating systems, recommendation engines, identity systems, payment tools and analytics. Technology affects quality, cost, accessibility and scale.

3. Interface and discovery layer

Users encounter content through home pages, search, recommendations, playlists, notifications, social feeds, electronic programme guides and voice interfaces. Visibility is not determined solely by content quality. Placement, metadata, thumbnails, trailers and ranking systems influence selection.

4. Business and revenue layer

Revenue may derive from advertising, subscriptions, transactions, licensing, sponsorship, commerce, donations, memberships or public funding. Many services are hybrid. Managers must understand not only revenue but also acquisition cost, retention, rights cost, payment fees and customer-support expense.

5. Governance and social layer

This includes copyright, privacy, child safety, accessibility, content moderation, competition policy, advertising standards, labour practices and cultural obligations. Media management decisions are shaped by law and public expectations as well as by technology and market demand.

These layers are interdependent. A change in content rights affects the catalogue; catalogue design affects the interface; interface design affects engagement; engagement affects advertising or subscription value; and all layers are constrained by governance.

Audience Agency, Participation and Convergence

Audience agency

Audience agency refers to the capacity of users to choose when, where and how they consume media. It includes selection, pausing, skipping, replaying, sharing and switching devices. Agency is not unlimited. Interfaces, pricing, recommendations, data plans, accessibility and social pressures shape what users can realistically do.

Participation

Participatory media allows audiences to respond to, circulate or create media. Participation may be low-effort, such as liking or sharing, or high-effort, such as producing a video essay, moderating a community or collaboratively developing a fan project. Participation can increase loyalty and cultural relevance, but it also creates risks of harassment, misinformation, copyright infringement and unequal visibility.

Media convergence

Convergence describes the interaction and partial integration of previously distinct media technologies, industries and practices. A smartphone can function as a television, radio, camera, editing suite, publishing tool and payment device. A television company may operate a streaming service, podcast network, social accounts and live-event business.

Convergence does not mean that all media become identical. Each medium retains distinctive affordances. Long-form television supports sustained narrative; short video supports rapid circulation; podcasts support intimate listening; live streaming supports immediacy and interaction. Effective management recognises both integration and difference.

Business Models and Industry Economics

Advertising-supported models

Advertising-supported services sell access to audience attention, targeting capabilities or commercial outcomes. Important measures can include impressions, reach, frequency, completion rate, viewability and conversion. A common advertising measure is cost per thousand impressions:

Here, CPM is cost per thousand impressions, advertising cost is measured in currency and impressions are the number of delivered ad exposures. The formula assumes that impressions are counted consistently and that the advertiser and publisher use the same definition of an impression. For example, an advertising placement costing $20,000 and generating 4,000,000 impressions has a CPM of $5. The calculation does not by itself establish whether the campaign was effective; effectiveness also depends on audience quality, attention and outcomes.

Subscription models

Subscription services depend on recurring payment and continued perceived value. Managers monitor subscriber acquisition, activation, engagement, churn and retention. A simple period churn rate can be expressed as:

Both quantities must refer to the same period and customer definition. If a service begins a month with 100,000 paying customers and loses 4,000 during that month, its monthly churn rate is 4%. This measure does not include new customers acquired during the month and should not be confused with annual churn.

Subscription success depends on a combination of content value, price, user experience, availability, payment convenience, brand trust and switching costs. A large catalogue may attract users, but poor discovery can reduce perceived value.

Transactional and mixed models

TVOD charges for a particular rental or purchase. Hybrid models combine subscriptions, advertising, transactions, sponsorship or commerce. The choice of model should fit the content category, audience willingness to pay, frequency of use and rights structure. Premium live sport, for example, may support transactions or subscriptions, while broad-reach entertainment may be suitable for advertising.

Measurement and Data in New Media

Digital media can generate detailed event data: starts, pauses, completions, searches, clicks, shares, watch time, subscription actions and device information. These data can support programming, marketing and product decisions, but they do not automatically reveal motivation or satisfaction.

Important distinctions include:

• Reach: the number or proportion of distinct users exposed to content.
• Impressions: total delivered exposures, including repeated exposures.
• Engagement: interactions such as viewing, commenting, sharing or time spent.
• Completion rate: the proportion of initiated plays reaching a specified endpoint.
• Retention: continued use or payment over time.
• Conversion: a desired action, such as subscribing or purchasing.
• Attribution: assigning credit for an outcome to one or more marketing or content contacts.

Data can be incomplete, duplicated, affected by shared devices or distorted by automated traffic. Managers should combine quantitative analytics with qualitative research, usability testing, interviews and audience communities. Personalisation systems also require careful monitoring because recommendations can reinforce narrow preferences, disadvantage minority content or amplify sensational material.

Professional and Managerial Implications

The shift to new media changes professional work in several ways.

Editorial management must plan for multiple windows, formats, territories and release strategies. A programme may require a full episode, trailer, short clips, subtitles, audio excerpts, still images and social adaptations.

Rights management must identify ownership, performer permissions, music licences, territory, duration, platform, language and media rights. Internet availability does not eliminate territorial licensing; rights may still be limited by contract or law.

Product management treats the media service as an evolving user experience. It involves interface design, accessibility, search, recommendation, payments, performance and experimentation.

Marketing management integrates trailers, public relations, creators, social communities, search visibility, partnerships and lifecycle communication. The objective is not only launch awareness but sustained discovery and retention.

Operations management coordinates production schedules, encoding, quality assurance, content delivery, customer support, moderation and incident response.

Commercial management evaluates pricing, advertising inventory, bundles, licensing, partnerships and the economics of customer acquisition.

Employability increasingly depends on hybrid competence: editorial judgement combined with data literacy, platform knowledge, rights awareness and ethical reasoning.

Ethical, Regulatory and Governance Issues

New media expands access but also creates significant responsibilities.

Privacy and surveillance

Platforms may collect viewing histories, device identifiers, location information, inferred interests and interaction data. Organisations should collect only necessary data, explain its use, protect it from unauthorised access and provide legally appropriate user controls. Personalisation should not become unjustified surveillance.

Copyright and licensing

Digital copying and global distribution make unauthorised reuse easier. Managers must clear music, images, performances, scripts, clips, translations and user submissions. Platform terms do not automatically transfer all copyright ownership.

Content moderation and safety

Services must address hate speech, exploitation, harassment, dangerous misinformation and illegal material while respecting legitimate expression. Moderation systems may combine automated detection, human review, user reporting and appeals. Automated systems can make cultural and linguistic errors, so human oversight and transparent procedures are essential.

Accessibility and inclusion

Captions, audio description, transcripts, keyboard navigation, readable interfaces and accessible player controls expand participation. Inclusion also concerns language, representation, affordability, broadband access and algorithmic visibility.

Regulation and public interest

Rules vary by jurisdiction and may address broadcasting obligations, video-on-demand catalogues, advertising, data protection, child safety, competition, taxation and cultural production. A service operating internationally must map its obligations by market rather than assume that one policy is universally sufficient.

Contemporary Developments: AI and Platformisation

Artificial intelligence is increasingly used for transcription, translation, captioning, content tagging, recommendation, advertising optimisation, customer support, moderation and synthetic-media production. These applications can reduce cost and improve accessibility, but they raise questions about training data, consent, bias, disclosure, labour displacement, copyright and accountability.

A responsible media organisation should document where AI is used, test outputs for accuracy and bias, preserve human accountability for consequential decisions, protect confidential data and disclose synthetic or materially altered media when audiences could be misled.

Platformisation refers to the growing organisation of media production and circulation around digital platforms, their interfaces, data systems and commercial rules. It can lower barriers to publication while making publishers dependent on changing algorithms, fees, policies and access conditions. Strategic resilience therefore requires diversified distribution, direct audience relationships where feasible, owned data practices and clear contingency plans.

Illustrative Case: A Regional Broadcaster Builds a Hybrid Media Service

Background

“Northstar Media” is a fictional regional broadcaster with a popular evening news programme, local drama and community radio. Its terrestrial audience is ageing, younger viewers increasingly use mobile video and advertisers request measurable digital campaigns.

Problem

Northstar faces declining linear viewing, fragmented attention and limited technical capacity. It cannot compete immediately with global platforms on catalogue size. It must extend reach without abandoning its public-service identity or overspending on technology.

Analysis

The organisation identifies three strategic assets: trusted local journalism, regional language content and relationships with community contributors. It also identifies constraints: limited rights for older programmes, inconsistent metadata, weak mobile design and inadequate knowledge of digital analytics.

Approach and solution

Northstar launches a hybrid service with four components:

1. a free ad-supported video catalogue of local news, short documentaries and selected drama;
2. a live stream of its main channel and scheduled local events;
3. podcast versions of interviews and explanatory journalism;
4. social accounts and creator partnerships that invite community stories under clear editorial and rights rules.

The service uses captions as a default requirement, a simple search system and transparent editorial categories. It adopts a modest subscription tier for early access and an ad-free experience, while retaining free access to public-interest news. The organisation establishes a rights register, a correction policy, moderation procedures and a dashboard covering reach, completion, returning users, subscription conversion and complaints.

Outcome

In the first year, the service does not match global platforms in total viewing, but it improves access to local content, attracts younger users and provides advertisers with a measurable regional environment. The most successful programmes are not necessarily the most expensive; local relevance and effective packaging drive discovery. Northstar also learns that social clips generate awareness but do not automatically produce full-episode viewing, so each platform receives a distinct role in the audience journey.

Learning points

The case illustrates that digital transformation is organisational rather than merely technical. A sustainable service requires suitable content, rights clearance, product design, audience research, data governance and a realistic revenue model. It also shows that a regional organisation can compete through differentiation rather than catalogue scale.

Challenges and Limitations

First, digital reach can conceal unequal access. Broadband cost, device ownership, disability and digital literacy influence participation. Second, the abundance of content creates discoverability problems and encourages dependence on ranking systems. Third, subscription fatigue and advertising saturation may reduce willingness to pay or attention quality. Fourth, platform power can expose publishers to sudden algorithmic or commercial changes. Fifth, metrics may reward immediate engagement at the expense of public value, accuracy or cultural diversity. Finally, global scale can conflict with local regulation, language needs and community expectations.

Good management therefore requires critical evaluation. “More views” is not always better; “more engagement” may indicate controversy rather than value; and “personalisation” may reduce serendipitous discovery. Performance indicators should be linked to the organisation’s mission and interpreted with context.

Best-Practice Principles

1. Define the audience problem before selecting a platform or technology.
2. Separate content ownership, distribution rights and platform access in contracts.
3. Design for accessibility, low bandwidth and multiple devices.
4. Use a mixed measurement system combining reach, quality, retention, revenue and user trust.
5. Treat data protection and security as design requirements, not later additions.
6. Maintain human oversight of moderation, recommendation and AI-assisted processes.
7. Build content packages appropriate to each platform rather than copying one format everywhere.
8. Develop direct audience relationships while diversifying third-party distribution.
9. Make editorial, commercial and synthetic-media disclosures clear.
10. Review strategy continuously because technologies, regulations and audience practices change.

Chapter Summary

Media has evolved from scheduled, centralised broadcasting toward digital, on-demand and participatory systems, but older forms continue to coexist with newer ones. Digitisation enables storage, search, multi-device access and data analysis; internet distribution enables streaming and user-controlled timing; social and creator platforms add interaction and production by users.

OTT describes internet-delivered media services that operate outside traditional managed distribution packages. Streaming describes a delivery process. CTV describes an internet-connected television environment. Social media emphasises networked interaction, podcasts organise digitally distributed audio, and creator platforms provide tools and commercial systems for individual publishers. These distinctions are essential for accurate managerial analysis.

New media should be examined through content, technology, interface, business and governance layers. Business models include advertising, subscriptions, transactions and hybrids. Metrics such as reach, impressions, completion, churn and conversion are useful but require careful definitions and ethical interpretation. Managers must also address rights, privacy, accessibility, moderation, regulation, AI accountability and platform dependence.

The central lesson is that digital transformation is not simply a migration of programmes to the internet. It is a redesign of the relationship among content, technology, audiences, organisations and society.

Key Terms

OTT: Internet-delivered media service operating outside a traditional managed distribution package.

Streaming: Delivery of media for playback while data continues to arrive.

Connected television (CTV): An internet-connected television set or television viewing environment.

Linear media: Content presented according to a predetermined schedule.

Non-linear media: Content selected and accessed at a user-determined time.

SVOD: Subscription video on demand.

AVOD: Advertising-supported video on demand.

TVOD: Transactional video on demand.

FAST: Free ad-supported streaming television.

BVOD: Broadcaster video on demand.

Social media: Networked services supporting publication, interaction and circulation among users.

Podcast: Digitally distributed episodic audio programme.

Creator platform: Service providing tools and systems for individual or small-team content production and monetisation.

User-generated content: Media produced by users rather than exclusively by professional organisations.

Platform: Infrastructure and rules enabling multiple participants to publish, interact or transact.

Audience agency: The capacity of users to choose, control and respond to media use.

Media convergence: Interaction and integration among formerly distinct media technologies, industries and practices.

Churn: Loss of customers or subscribers during a specified period.

Content delivery network: Distributed network infrastructure that delivers digital content closer to end users.

Content moderation: Processes used to identify, restrict, review or remove harmful or prohibited material.

Review Questions

Short Answer Questions

1. What is the principal difference between OTT and streaming?
2. Define connected television and explain how it relates to OTT.
3. What distinguishes linear from non-linear media?
4. Identify two common revenue models used by new media services.
5. Why is accessibility an important responsibility for digital media organisations?

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain the major changes introduced by the movement from broadcasting to on-demand media.
2. Compare SVOD, AVOD, TVOD and FAST, including the managerial circumstances in which each may be appropriate.
3. Discuss the five layers of the framework for analysing new media.
4. Explain how participation and creator platforms have changed the relationship between media organisations and audiences.
5. Evaluate the ethical and regulatory challenges associated with data-driven media platforms.

Analytical / Application Questions

1. A regional television channel has declining linear ratings but strong local journalism. Design a two-year OTT and social-media strategy using the framework in this chapter.
2. A platform records high video starts but low completion and subscription conversion. What additional data and qualitative evidence should managers examine before changing the catalogue or interface?
3. Analyse a media service of your choice. Identify its content, technology, interface, business and governance layers, and assess one major strategic risk in each layer.

Multiple Choice Questions with Answers

Question 1

Which statement most accurately distinguishes OTT from streaming?

A. OTT is a service and distribution relationship, while streaming is a delivery process.

B. OTT refers only to live television, while streaming refers only to podcasts.

C. OTT requires satellite transmission, while streaming requires terrestrial transmission.

D. OTT is a measurement metric, while streaming is a revenue model.

Correct Answer: A. OTT is a service and distribution relationship, while streaming is a delivery process.

Question 2

What is the defining characteristic of a linear media service?

A. Users must create the content themselves.

B. Content is presented according to a predetermined schedule.

C. All content is delivered through social media.

D. Users pay separately for every programme.

Correct Answer: B. Content is presented according to a predetermined schedule.

Question 3

A service offers free access funded mainly by advertising and organises programmes into internet-based channels. Which model best describes it?

A. SVOD

B. TVOD

C. FAST

D. Premium podcasting

Correct Answer: C. FAST

Question 4

A connected television is best understood as:

A. A device or viewing environment connected to the internet.

B. A subscription contract between a broadcaster and an advertiser.

C. A catalogue containing only user-generated videos.

D. A system that cannot display streamed content.

Correct Answer: A. A device or viewing environment connected to the internet.

Question 5

Which activity most clearly demonstrates participatory media?

A. A broadcaster transmitting a fixed schedule without feedback.

B. A user producing, publishing and responding to content within a platform community.

C. A satellite repeating a signal to household receivers.

D. A cinema screening a film at a fixed time.

Correct Answer: B. A user producing, publishing and responding to content within a platform community.

Question 6

An advertisement costs $20,000 and generates 4,000,000 impressions. What is its CPM?

A. $0.05

B. $2.00

C. $5.00

D. $50.00

Correct Answer: C. $5.00

Question 7

A subscription service begins a month with 100,000 customers and loses 4,000 during the month. What is its period churn rate?

A. 0.4%

B. 4%

C. 40%

D. 96%

Correct Answer: B. 4%

Question 8

Which item belongs primarily to the interface and discovery layer of new media?

A. Music licensing rights

B. Broadband cables

C. Home-page recommendations and search results

D. A performer’s employment contract

Correct Answer: C. Home-page recommendations and search results

Question 9

Why should digital audience analytics be combined with qualitative research?

A. Digital analytics never records any user activity.

B. Qualitative research eliminates the need for measurement.

C. Metrics may show behaviour without fully explaining user motivation or satisfaction.

D. Qualitative research is required only for analogue radio.

Correct Answer: C. Metrics may show behaviour without fully explaining user motivation or satisfaction.

Question 10

Which is an appropriate governance practice when using AI for content moderation or recommendation?

A. Remove all human oversight to increase efficiency.

B. Use AI outputs without testing because algorithms are neutral.

C. Document use, test for bias and accuracy, and retain human accountability.

D. Avoid informing users about materially synthetic media in all circumstances.

Correct Answer: C. Document use, test for bias and accuracy, and retain human accountability.