Foundations of Organizational Development and Change

Introduction

Organizations operate in environments characterized by technological disruption, demographic shifts, geopolitical uncertainty, regulatory change, changing employee expectations, and intensified competition. In such conditions, organizational effectiveness cannot be secured merely by redesigning structures or issuing new policies. Organizations must learn, adapt, and sometimes transform the assumptions through which work is understood and performed.

Organizational Development (OD) provides a systematic and humanistic approach to improving organizational capability and effectiveness. It combines behavioral science knowledge with planned processes of inquiry, participation, learning, and change. Change management, in contrast, generally focuses on enabling individuals and groups to adopt particular changes and realize intended benefits. The two fields overlap, but they are not identical. OD is often broader, more participative, and more concerned with organizational health and long-term capability; change management may be directed toward a defined implementation such as a merger, enterprise system, restructuring, or new operating model.

For postgraduate HRM students, OD is important because people practices both shape and are shaped by organizational change. Recruitment, learning, performance management, leadership development, employee relations, reward, workforce planning, and culture are not isolated activities. They form part of a wider organizational system.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

1. Define organizational development, organizational change, change management, and related terminology.
2. Explain the assumptions and values underlying OD.
3. Trace the historical evolution of OD and identify major intellectual influences.
4. Distinguish OD from HRM, organizational behavior, strategy, transformation, and change management.
5. Classify change as planned, emergent, developmental, transitional, or transformational.
6. Apply OD concepts to the diagnosis and management of an organizational problem.
7. Evaluate the ethical, practical, and contextual limitations of OD interventions.

1. Core Terminology

Organization

An organization is a deliberately or emergently coordinated social system in which people, technologies, resources, structures, and processes are arranged to pursue purposes. Organizations include businesses, public agencies, hospitals, universities, charities, and professional partnerships. They are open systems: they receive inputs from their environment, transform those inputs through work processes, and produce outputs that affect the environment.

Organizational change

Organizational change is an alteration in an organization’s strategy, structure, technology, processes, people, culture, relationships, or patterns of behavior. Change may be incremental or radical, intentional or unintentional, temporary or enduring. A new payroll system, a revised reporting structure, and a shift from product sales to digital services are all organizational changes, although their scale and consequences differ.

Organizational development

A widely used formulation describes OD as a planned, organization-wide effort, supported by top management, to increase organizational effectiveness and health through planned interventions in organizational processes, using behavioral-science knowledge. Contemporary OD has expanded beyond this early formulation. It includes inquiry, participation, system-wide learning, culture work, leadership, inclusion, organization design, and the development of adaptive capability.

OD should therefore be understood as both:

• a field of applied knowledge concerning how organizations function and change; and
• a professional practice involving diagnosis, facilitation, intervention, evaluation, and ethical judgment.

Change management

Change management is the structured practice of preparing, supporting, and equipping people and groups to adopt a change and sustain its intended benefits. It commonly includes stakeholder analysis, communication, readiness assessment, sponsor alignment, training, resistance management, reinforcement, and benefits realization.

Intervention

An intervention is a deliberate activity designed to influence organizational processes, relationships, structures, or outcomes. Examples include team development, coaching, survey feedback, process consultation, appreciative inquiry, leadership development, conflict resolution, job redesign, and large-group strategic dialogue.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is the systematic process of gathering and interpreting information about an organization, its environment, and its functioning. In OD, diagnosis is not simply the identification of defects. It is an inquiry into patterns, strengths, constraints, relationships, assumptions, and possibilities. A sound diagnosis combines multiple data sources and includes the perspectives of affected stakeholders.

Readiness and resistance

Change readiness refers to the extent to which individuals, groups, or an organization are psychologically and structurally prepared to undertake a change. Resistance is behavior, cognition, emotion, or inaction that appears to oppose or limit a change. Contemporary OD avoids treating resistance automatically as irrational. Resistance may reveal legitimate concerns about workload, identity, fairness, safety, loss of status, or poor design.

2. Foundational Assumptions of OD

OD rests on several assumptions, although different schools of OD emphasize them differently.

Organizations are social systems

Organizational outcomes arise from interactions among people, structures, technology, tasks, culture, and the external environment. A performance problem attributed to employee motivation may actually result from contradictory goals, inadequate systems, unclear authority, or an unrealistic workload. This systems perspective discourages simplistic explanations.

People are capable of learning and exercising agency

OD generally assumes that people are not merely passive recipients of managerial decisions. With appropriate information, voice, resources, and psychological safety, employees can diagnose problems, generate solutions, and develop new capabilities. This assumption does not imply that all interests are identical or that participation eliminates power differences.

Participation can improve both quality and commitment

Those who perform work often possess knowledge unavailable to senior decision makers. Participation can improve diagnosis, solution quality, ownership, and implementation. However, participation must be authentic. Consultation without influence can increase cynicism rather than commitment.

Organizational effectiveness and human well-being are related

Traditional management may treat performance and employee well-being as competing objectives. OD generally argues that sustainable effectiveness is more likely when people experience meaningful work, fairness, learning, respect, and manageable demands. This is not a claim that every employee preference can be satisfied; it is a claim that organizational health is relevant to long-term performance.

Inquiry influences reality

The questions an organization asks affect what members notice and discuss. An inquiry focused exclusively on failure may generate defensiveness, while an inquiry into strengths and possibilities may increase energy and experimentation. This insight is associated with social constructionist approaches and does not mean that material constraints are imaginary. Rather, language, interpretation, and relationships influence how organizational realities are enacted.

Change is contextual

There is no universally best intervention. The appropriate approach depends on the organization’s history, culture, power structure, technology, workforce, external environment, and change capacity. A participative intervention may be suitable in one context and insufficient in another, especially where urgent legal, safety, or financial action is required.

3. Values and Ethical Commitments

OD is not value-neutral. Its classical values include respect for people, consideration of individual differences, trust, openness, collaboration, participation, confrontation of problems, and the use of power for legitimate and constructive purposes. Contemporary OD adds commitments to inclusion, equity, sustainability, employee voice, psychological safety, and responsible use of data.

These values generate difficult ethical questions:

• Who defines the problem and the desired future?
• Who is invited to participate, and who is excluded?
• Is participation voluntary or coerced?
• How will confidential data be protected?
• Are employees being asked to support a decision that has already been made?
• Who benefits from the intervention, and who bears its costs?
• Does the consultant serve management alone, or all affected stakeholders?

An OD practitioner must manage confidentiality carefully. For example, individual interview comments should not be reported in a way that permits retaliation or identification unless explicit permission has been obtained. At the same time, confidentiality cannot be used to conceal serious risks such as harassment, discrimination, fraud, or threats to health and safety. Ethical practice requires clarity about the limits of confidentiality before data collection begins.

Power is another central issue. OD language can appear collaborative while major decisions remain controlled by executives. Effective practitioners therefore make decision rights explicit, identify competing interests, and avoid presenting managerial preferences as neutral facts.

4. Historical Evolution of Organizational Development

OD emerged from several streams of research and practice rather than from a single founder.

Human relations and group research

The human relations tradition emphasized the social dimensions of work, including informal groups, morale, supervision, and communication. Research associated with Elton Mayo and colleagues drew attention to the influence of social relationships and attention on workplace behavior, although later scholarship has questioned simple interpretations of the Hawthorne studies.

Kurt Lewin made foundational contributions through field theory, group dynamics, action research, and the idea that behavior reflects the interaction between person and environment. His work encouraged practitioners to study real organizational problems while involving participants in cycles of inquiry and action.

Laboratory training and T-groups

In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory training and T-groups developed interpersonal awareness, feedback, and sensitivity to group processes. These methods influenced later team development and experiential learning. Critics noted that intensive personal disclosure could be intrusive and that laboratory experiences did not always transfer effectively to organizational settings.

Survey feedback and action research

Survey feedback involved collecting information about employee perceptions, returning results to relevant groups, and using discussion to identify action. Action research typically follows a cycle of diagnosis, action, evaluation, and further diagnosis. It treats knowledge generation and practical change as connected processes.

Organization-wide and strategic OD

Early OD often focused on groups and interpersonal processes. Later developments addressed organization-wide culture, structure, strategy, mergers, quality improvement, leadership, diversity, and large-scale change. OD became increasingly connected to strategic management and organization design.

Contemporary and critical OD

Contemporary OD includes complexity thinking, dialogic OD, positive organizational scholarship, appreciative inquiry, design thinking, digital collaboration, agile ways of working, diversity and inclusion, sustainability, and employee experience. Critical perspectives challenge the assumption that all change labeled “development” is beneficial. They examine ideology, managerial control, identity, inequality, surveillance, and the possibility that OD may be used to secure compliance.

5. OD in Relation to Related Fields

OD overlaps with neighboring disciplines but has a distinctive focus.

OD and HRM

HRM provides policies and systems that shape the employee life cycle. OD provides methods for improving the organization as a social and adaptive system. The relationship is complementary. For example, HRM may design a competency framework, while OD helps leaders and employees explore how the framework affects culture, identity, collaboration, and power.

Strategic HRM asks how people policies contribute to organizational goals. OD asks how the organization can learn, collaborate, and change in ways that improve effectiveness and human sustainability. In practice, senior HR professionals often perform both roles.

OD and organizational behavior

Organizational behavior supplies theories and empirical findings about behavior at individual, group, and organizational levels. OD applies such knowledge to practical change. OB may explain psychological safety or groupthink; OD may use that knowledge to design team inquiry, leadership practices, or decision protocols.

OD and strategy

Strategy defines important choices about where and how an organization will compete or create public value. OD helps translate strategic intent into behavior, relationships, capabilities, and systems. A strategy that requires innovation but rewards only short-term error avoidance contains an organizational misalignment that OD can help diagnose.

OD and transformation

Transformation is usually a profound change in an organization’s identity, business model, capabilities, or relationship with its environment. It may involve digitalization, sustainability, internationalization, or a shift from products to services. OD contributes to transformation by addressing culture, leadership, meaning, participation, learning, and systemic alignment. Transformation is not simply a larger project plan; it often changes how the organization understands itself.

6. Classifying Organizational Change

Change categories are analytical distinctions, not mutually exclusive labels. One change may be planned at the executive level but emergent in its implementation, developmental in some units and transformational in others.

Planned and emergent change

Planned change begins with an intention to move from a current state toward a desired state. It often includes objectives, milestones, governance, resources, and evaluation. Planned change is useful when direction and outcomes can be specified, such as implementing a legally required safety process.

Emergent change develops through ongoing interactions, local experiments, adaptation, and learning. It is especially relevant in complex environments where leaders cannot predict all consequences. Emergent change does not mean unmanaged change; leaders can create conditions, boundaries, and feedback mechanisms that support constructive emergence.

Developmental, transitional, and transformational change

Developmental change improves existing capabilities, practices, or performance. Examples include strengthening coaching skills, improving a recruitment process, or developing team decision routines.

Transitional change replaces an existing state with a known or relatively specified alternative. Examples include moving from one enterprise resource planning system to another, consolidating departments, or introducing a new performance management cycle.

Transformational change involves a fundamental shift in identity, assumptions, business model, capabilities, or relationships. The future state may initially be unclear. Moving from a traditional bank to a technology-enabled platform organization is potentially transformational because it affects strategy, culture, skills, structures, and customer relationships.

7. Major Models and Frameworks

Lewin’s three-phase model

Lewin’s classic model is commonly presented as unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. Unfreezing involves questioning existing patterns and creating readiness. Changing involves experimenting with and adopting new behaviors or arrangements. Refreezing involves stabilizing useful patterns through systems, reinforcement, and shared meaning.

The model is valuable as a way to think about readiness, movement, and stabilization. It should not be interpreted as a rigid linear sequence. In contemporary environments, organizations may repeatedly unfreeze and relearn rather than reach a permanent equilibrium.

The action research cycle

Action research links inquiry to intervention. A practical cycle is:

1. Contracting and agreeing the purpose of the inquiry.
2. Collecting data from multiple sources.
3. Providing feedback and jointly interpreting findings.
4. Planning action.
5. Implementing action.
6. Evaluating effects and beginning another cycle of learning.

The cycle is participative, but participation must be proportionate to the decision and feasible within time and risk constraints.

Open systems diagnosis

An open-systems diagnosis examines inputs, transformation processes, outputs, feedback, and environmental conditions. Inputs may include resources, customer expectations, regulation, labor-market conditions, and technology. Transformation processes include structure, culture, leadership, workflows, and technology. Outputs include financial results, service quality, innovation, employee experience, and social impact.

A useful diagnostic question is not merely “What is wrong?” but “What pattern connects the organization’s environment, design, behavior, and outcomes?”

Congruence perspectives

Congruence models examine the fit among tasks, people, formal organization, and informal organization. Poor performance can arise when these elements are inconsistent. For instance, an organization may demand cross-functional innovation while maintaining departmental targets, rigid approval rules, and reward systems based solely on individual results.

Dialogic and appreciative approaches

Dialogic OD emphasizes meaning-making, narratives, conversations, and the emergence of new possibilities. Appreciative inquiry begins with identifying what gives life to an organization and uses strengths-based questioning to imagine and create a preferred future. These approaches can generate energy and broaden participation, but they should not be used to avoid discussing failure, injustice, or material constraints.

8. A Practical OD Process

A professional OD process commonly includes the following activities:

1. Entry and contracting: Clarify the client system, purpose, roles, boundaries, resources, decision rights, and ethical expectations.
2. Diagnosis: Gather quantitative and qualitative evidence. Possible sources include interviews, surveys, observation, workflow data, customer feedback, employee relations cases, and performance indicators.
3. Feedback and interpretation: Return findings in a form that enables collective sense-making. Data should be disaggregated carefully and interpreted in context.
4. Design: Develop interventions that address causes rather than symptoms. Consider sequencing, ownership, risks, inclusion, and capacity.
5. Implementation: Facilitate action while adapting to new information. Leaders must model desired behaviors and remove structural barriers.
6. Evaluation: Assess implementation, immediate effects, unintended consequences, and sustainability. Evaluation should include both outcomes and learning.

A balanced evaluation distinguishes between activity, adoption, outcome, and sustainability. For example, the number of employees attending a training session is an activity measure; use of the new behavior is an adoption measure; improved service quality may be an outcome; continued performance after twelve months is a sustainability measure.

9. Case Study: Meridian Health Services

The following is a fictional illustrative case.

Background

Meridian Health Services operates six outpatient clinics. Patient demand has increased, but waiting times and employee turnover have also risen. Senior leaders initially propose purchasing a new scheduling system and introducing individual performance targets for reception staff.

Problem

A preliminary review shows that the scheduling problem is not primarily caused by employee effort. Each clinic uses different appointment categories, physicians frequently change availability, and receptionists must obtain approval for routine adjustments. Staff report that performance targets encourage them to process appointments quickly even when patients require additional support. The proposed technology may automate inconsistent practices without solving the underlying coordination problem.

Analysis

An OD team conducts interviews, observes work, analyzes appointment data, and convenes representatives from reception, clinicians, information technology, and patients. The diagnosis identifies four interacting issues:

• inconsistent processes across clinics;
• unclear authority for schedule changes;
• weak coordination between clinical and administrative staff;
• performance measures that reward speed rather than patient flow and service quality.

The problem is therefore systemic. A purely technical intervention would be transitional, but the required change also has developmental and potentially transformational elements because it challenges the identity of reception work and the relationship between professional groups.

Approach

The organization establishes a cross-clinic design group. It standardizes essential appointment definitions while allowing limited local adaptation. It pilots a shared scheduling protocol in two clinics, gives trained coordinators authority to resolve routine conflicts, and replaces narrow individual speed targets with a balanced set of team indicators. These include waiting time, appointment utilization, patient experience, error rates, and employee-reported workload.

Leaders hold weekly learning reviews during the pilot. Staff can report unintended effects without individual blame. The technology purchase is delayed until process requirements are understood.

Outcome

After four months, the pilot clinics report shorter average waiting times, fewer appointment errors, and improved coordination. Employee turnover intentions decline, although workload remains high during peak periods. The organization decides to modify the protocol before wider implementation rather than claiming that the pilot is complete.

Learning points

1. The visible problem was technological, but the underlying problem involved process, authority, measures, and relationships.
2. Participation improved diagnosis and increased implementation ownership.
3. Pilot learning supported emergent adaptation within a planned direction.
4. Measures shaped behavior; therefore, measurement design was an OD issue.
5. Delaying a major technology decision prevented the organization from automating poor processes.

10. Challenges and Limitations

OD can fail when it is treated as a collection of workshops rather than a systemic practice. Common limitations include:

• Overemphasis on consensus: Some decisions require timely authority, and consensus can conceal unequal power or produce vague commitments.
• Insufficient strategic connection: Team-building cannot compensate for an incoherent strategy or an economically unsustainable business model.
• Cultural stereotyping: Describing a national or organizational culture too broadly can obscure diversity and encourage simplistic interventions.
• Measurement difficulty: Effects may be delayed, indirect, or influenced by external factors. Attribution should therefore be cautious.
• Change fatigue: Repeated initiatives without visible learning or benefit can reduce trust and readiness.
• Symbolic participation: Employees may be invited to provide ideas while core decisions remain predetermined.
• Ethical misuse: OD methods can be used to intensify surveillance, normalize excessive demands, or secure compliance without genuine voice.
• Context neglect: A model developed in one setting may not transfer directly to another because institutions, labor markets, power relations, and cultural expectations differ.

11. Contemporary Implications for HR Professionals

Digital work, artificial intelligence, hybrid teams, algorithmic management, climate risk, and changing employment arrangements create new OD questions. HR professionals must consider how technology changes authority, skill requirements, identity, collaboration, and fairness. An AI-enabled recruitment system, for example, is not only a technical implementation. It may alter recruiter roles, candidate experience, accountability, and discrimination risk.

Responsible practice requires human oversight, explainability appropriate to the context, data protection, bias testing, accessibility, and clear accountability. Organizations should distinguish efficiency gains from genuine organizational development. Automating a process does not necessarily increase capability if employees cannot challenge errors or understand decisions.

Hybrid work also makes organizational processes more visible. Informal coordination, belonging, learning, and social support may weaken when interaction becomes fragmented. OD responses may include redesigning team routines, clarifying decision rights, strengthening asynchronous documentation, and examining whether promotion and recognition systems disadvantage remote workers.

Sustainable OD increasingly considers the organization’s effects on employees, communities, customers, and the natural environment. The question “effective for whom, and over what time horizon?” is central to responsible organizational development.

Chapter Summary

Organizational Development is an applied field and professional practice concerned with organizational health, effectiveness, learning, and adaptive capability. It draws on behavioral science and emphasizes diagnosis, participation, inquiry, intervention, and evaluation. Its assumptions include the systemic nature of organizations, the capacity of people to learn and exercise agency, the value of participation, and the importance of contextual judgment.

OD evolved from human relations, group dynamics, action research, survey feedback, laboratory training, and organization-wide change. It overlaps with HRM, organizational behavior, strategy, organization design, transformation, and change management, but it is distinguished by its focus on improving organizational processes and capability through participative and often systemic methods.

Change may be planned or emergent, and developmental, transitional, or transformational. These categories help managers select appropriate approaches, while recognizing that real change frequently combines several forms. Effective OD requires ethical attention to power, voice, confidentiality, inclusion, measurement, and unintended consequences. For HR professionals, OD provides a framework for connecting people systems with strategy, organizational learning, technological change, and sustainable performance.

Key Terms

Organizational development: A field and practice that uses behavioral-science knowledge and participative processes to improve organizational effectiveness, health, and adaptability.

Organizational change: An alteration in organizational strategy, structure, technology, processes, people, culture, or behavior.

Change management: The structured practice of enabling people and groups to adopt and sustain a defined change.

Intervention: A deliberate activity intended to influence organizational processes, relationships, structures, or outcomes.

Diagnosis: Systematic inquiry into organizational conditions, patterns, strengths, constraints, and possibilities.

Open system: A system that exchanges resources, information, energy, and effects with its environment.

Action research: A cyclical process connecting diagnosis, action, evaluation, and learning.

Readiness: The extent to which individuals or systems are prepared and willing to undertake change.

Resistance: Behavior, emotion, cognition, or inaction that limits or challenges a change.

Planned change: Change initiated through an intentional direction, objectives, and coordinated actions.

Emergent change: Change that develops through interaction, experimentation, adaptation, and learning.

Developmental change: Improvement of existing capabilities, practices, or performance.

Transitional change: Replacement of an existing state with a relatively specified alternative.

Transformational change: Fundamental change in organizational identity, assumptions, business model, or capabilities.

Organizational culture: Shared meanings, assumptions, values, and patterns that influence organizational behavior.

Organization design: The arrangement of roles, authority, workflows, structures, and coordination mechanisms.

Psychological safety: A shared belief that people can speak up, ask questions, and report concerns without undue interpersonal punishment.

Stakeholder: An individual or group that affects, is affected by, or has a legitimate interest in organizational decisions.

Change fatigue: Reduced energy, trust, or capacity resulting from repeated or poorly managed change initiatives.

Dialogic OD: An approach emphasizing conversations, narratives, meaning-making, and the emergence of new possibilities.

Review Questions

Short Answer Questions

1. Define organizational development and distinguish it from change management.
2. What is meant by an open-systems perspective?
3. Identify four values commonly associated with OD.
4. Distinguish developmental change from transformational change.
5. Why is diagnosis important before selecting an intervention?

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain the historical evolution of OD from human relations and group dynamics to contemporary and critical approaches.
2. Compare OD with HRM, organizational behavior, strategy, and change management.
3. Discuss the ethical challenges involved in participation, confidentiality, and power in OD practice.
4. Explain planned and emergent change, including the circumstances in which each perspective is useful.
5. Evaluate the usefulness and limitations of Lewin’s three-phase model in contemporary organizations.

Analytical / Application Questions

1. An organization introduces individual sales targets while claiming that it wants collaborative innovation. Use a systems or congruence perspective to diagnose the likely problems.
2. A public agency wants to replace its paper-based case system with an integrated digital platform. Classify the change and propose an OD process for implementation.
3. Employees reject a restructuring proposal because they fear job loss and believe consultation is symbolic. Analyze the situation using OD values, power, readiness, and ethical practice.

Multiple Choice Questions with Answers

Question 1

Which statement best describes organizational development?

A. A process limited to replacing an organization’s technology

B. A field and practice using behavioral-science knowledge to improve organizational effectiveness and health

C. A financial method for calculating organizational profitability

D. A legal procedure for terminating employment contracts

Correct Answer: B. A field and practice using behavioral-science knowledge to improve organizational effectiveness and health

Question 2

What is the central implication of viewing an organization as an open system?

A. Organizational outcomes are independent of the external environment

B. Only formal structures influence performance

C. The organization exchanges resources and information with its environment

D. Employee behavior can be understood without considering technology or tasks

Correct Answer: C. The organization exchanges resources and information with its environment

Question 3

Which form of change replaces an existing arrangement with a relatively specified alternative?

A. Developmental change

B. Transitional change

C. Transformational change

D. Emergent change

Correct Answer: B. Transitional change

Question 4

Which activity is characteristic of action research?

A. Diagnosis separated permanently from implementation

B. A cycle of diagnosis, action, evaluation, and learning

C. Replacing employee participation with executive instructions

D. Avoiding feedback until the change is complete

Correct Answer: B. A cycle of diagnosis, action, evaluation, and learning

Question 5

Why should resistance not automatically be treated as irrational?

A. It may reveal legitimate concerns about fairness, workload, identity, or safety

B. Resistance always guarantees that a change will fail

C. Resistance is unrelated to organizational conditions

D. It proves that employees lack the skills to perform their jobs

Correct Answer: A. It may reveal legitimate concerns about fairness, workload, identity, or safety

Question 6

Which field primarily focuses on the employment relationship and people systems?

A. Strategic management

B. Organizational behavior

C. Human Resource Management

D. Operations research

Correct Answer: C. Human Resource Management

Question 7

A shift from selling physical products to providing a digital service platform is most likely to be classified as:

A. Transformational change

B. Routine developmental change

C. A minor administrative adjustment

D. Only an individual learning intervention

Correct Answer: A. Transformational change

Question 8

What is a major ethical risk when employee consultation is conducted after a decision has already been finalized?

A. Excessive methodological rigor

B. Symbolic participation and increased cynicism

C. Improved decision rights

D. Reduced organizational complexity

Correct Answer: B. Symbolic participation and increased cynicism

Question 9

In the Meridian Health Services case, why was buying new technology immediately considered insufficient?

A. Technology can never improve healthcare processes

B. The underlying problems included inconsistent processes, authority, coordination, and measures

C. Employees refused to use any form of technology

D. The organization had no patients

Correct Answer: B. The underlying problems included inconsistent processes, authority, coordination, and measures

Question 10

Which measure is an adoption measure rather than an activity measure?

A. Number of employees attending training

B. Amount spent on communication materials

C. Use of the new behavior in daily work

D. Number of workshops scheduled

Correct Answer: C. Use of the new behavior in daily work