Human Factors, Workforce Well-Being and Resilient Culture

Introduction

Crisis management is often described in terms of plans, technology, assets and decision rights. Yet every crisis is ultimately experienced and managed by people. Individuals interpret ambiguous information, make decisions under pressure, coordinate across boundaries, care for affected colleagues and communities, and determine whether weak signals are reported or concealed. A technically excellent emergency plan can fail when employees are exhausted, afraid to speak, psychologically injured, excluded from decisions or uncertain about their responsibilities.

Human factors therefore belong at the centre of organisational resilience. In this context, human factors include the psychological, social, organisational and physical conditions that influence how people perform, cooperate and recover. Workforce well-being is not merely an employee benefit. It is a condition of safe operations, ethical leadership, continuity and learning.

This chapter examines psychological safety, occupational stress, trauma, burnout, absenteeism and workforce displacement. It then develops practical approaches to duty of care, resilient teams, inclusive leadership, employee assistance, reporting and organisational learning. The central argument is that resilient culture is designed through everyday management practices before a crisis, protected through humane decisions during a crisis and strengthened through reflection after the event.

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter, readers should be able to:

1. Explain how human factors influence crisis preparedness, response and recovery.
2. Distinguish stress, trauma, burnout, moral injury, absenteeism and workforce displacement.
3. Evaluate psychological safety and its relationship to reporting and learning.
4. Design duty-of-care measures for employees, contractors, volunteers and displaced workers.
5. Apply inclusive leadership and team-resilience practices in high-pressure environments.
6. Develop ethically sound workforce-support and organisational-learning arrangements.
7. Critically evaluate limitations, risks and unintended consequences of well-being interventions.

1. Human factors as a resilience capability

Resilience is commonly understood as the capacity of an organisation to anticipate, absorb, adapt to and recover from disruption while maintaining essential functions. This capacity is not stored only in infrastructure or documented procedures. It is distributed across people, relationships, routines, professional judgement and institutional memory.

Human performance during crises is shaped by several interacting conditions:

• Individual conditions: sleep, health, skill, confidence, emotion and personal circumstances.
• Task conditions: workload, ambiguity, time pressure, equipment and role clarity.
• Team conditions: trust, communication, coordination, conflict management and leadership.
• Organisational conditions: staffing, incentives, hierarchy, resources, policies and culture.
• External conditions: family responsibilities, community disruption, legal obligations and public expectations.

A useful systems perspective rejects the idea that an error is automatically evidence of individual carelessness. Fatigue, contradictory priorities, poorly designed interfaces, inadequate staffing or fear of reprisal may have made the error more likely. Accountability remains necessary, particularly where there is reckless or malicious conduct, but effective crisis leadership asks a broader question: What conditions made this action reasonable or likely at the time?

This approach is consistent with contemporary safety thinking, including the distinction between work-as-imagined—what policies assume people do—and work-as-done—what people actually do to keep operations functioning under real conditions. Resilient organisations study the gap without romanticising unsafe workarounds.

2. Psychological safety and the learning environment

Psychological safety is a shared belief that people can raise concerns, ask questions, admit uncertainty, report mistakes and offer dissenting views without interpersonal humiliation or unjust retaliation. It does not mean that all behaviour is acceptable, that performance standards disappear or that every opinion is correct. It means that speaking up is treated as legitimate and investigated fairly.

Psychological safety has four practical dimensions:

1. Voice: employees can offer information and challenge assumptions.
2. Interpersonal respect: people are listened to regardless of rank, identity or employment status.
3. Fair response: reports lead to proportionate inquiry rather than automatic blame.
4. Learning orientation: the organisation converts experience into improved practice.

In a crisis, psychological safety is operationally valuable because information is incomplete and conditions change rapidly. Front-line workers often see emerging hazards before senior managers do. A culture that punishes bad news creates delayed reporting, selective data and escalation of preventable problems.

Leaders can strengthen safety by explicitly stating what is uncertain, inviting dissent, thanking people for raising risks, closing the feedback loop and distinguishing learning reviews from disciplinary investigations. They should also provide confidential or anonymous reporting channels where power differences make direct reporting unsafe. Anonymous channels are supplementary, not substitutes for trustworthy relationships.

A psychologically safe culture must be paired with psychological accountability. Reports should be examined for evidence, conflicts of interest and potential harm. Deliberate falsification, harassment and reckless disregard may require disciplinary action. The principle is not “no blame”; it is “fair accountability based on behaviour, context and evidence.”

3. Stress, trauma, burnout and moral injury

3.1 Occupational stress

Stress is a response arising when perceived demands exceed, or threaten to exceed, perceived resources. Short-term activation can improve attention and performance. Sustained or intense stress can impair memory, judgement, emotional regulation, immunity and sleep. Stress is not identical to workload: a demanding task may be manageable when resources, control and support are adequate, while modest demands can become harmful when employees lack autonomy or predictability.

Common crisis stressors include uncertainty, prolonged vigilance, exposure to suffering, role conflict, public criticism, inadequate information, disrupted routines, financial insecurity and concern for family safety. Leaders should monitor both visible signs—errors, conflict, withdrawal and lateness—and less visible signs such as emotional numbing, excessive compliance or reluctance to take necessary decisions.

3.2 Trauma and post-traumatic responses

Trauma refers to the psychological impact of events experienced as threatening, horrifying or overwhelming. Reactions may include intrusive memories, avoidance, hyperarousal, sleep disturbance, guilt, grief, depression or changes in relationships. Many people recover with time, social support and restoration of safety; others develop persistent conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Only qualified health professionals should diagnose or treat such conditions.

Organisations should avoid compulsory group disclosure or forced retelling of traumatic experiences. Early support should prioritise physical safety, practical assistance, reliable information, connection with trusted people and access to professional care. Managers should not act as therapists. Their responsibility is to notice concern, respond respectfully, adjust work where appropriate and refer employees to qualified services.

3.3 Burnout

The World Health Organization’s International Classification of Diseases describes burnout as an occupational phenomenon resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed. Its characteristic dimensions are exhaustion, increased mental distance or cynicism toward work, and reduced professional efficacy. Burnout is not simply a personal weakness or a synonym for ordinary tiredness.

Individual resilience training cannot compensate for chronically excessive workload, understaffing, low control, unfairness or abusive supervision. Effective prevention therefore combines job redesign with individual support. Relevant organisational actions include realistic staffing, protected rest, rotation from high-intensity duties, predictable scheduling, supervisor training and removal of low-value administrative burdens.

3.4 Moral injury and ethical distress

Moral injury may arise when a person perpetrates, witnesses or fails to prevent acts that violate deeply held moral beliefs, particularly under conditions of constrained choice. In crises, workers may be unable to provide the standard of care they consider right because of scarce resources, conflicting instructions or unsafe conditions. Moral distress refers to knowing the ethically appropriate action but being unable to take it; repeated unresolved distress may contribute to withdrawal, anger or departure.

Leaders should acknowledge ethical conflict, provide ethics consultation where available, document the rationale for difficult decisions and ensure that workers are not individually blamed for system-level scarcity. Transparency does not eliminate pain, but it supports legitimacy and learning.

4. Absenteeism, presenteeism and workforce displacement

Absenteeism is absence from scheduled work. Some absence is protective and legitimate, especially when a worker is ill, caring for others or unsafe to work. High or patterned absence may nevertheless indicate harmful conditions, poor supervision, transport disruption, infection, insecurity or inadequate leave arrangements.

Presenteeism occurs when a person attends work but is impaired by illness, exhaustion, distress or competing demands. It can create safety risks and may conceal the true impact of a crisis. A narrow attendance target can therefore produce the wrong behaviour: employees attend while unfit, delay treatment and later require longer absence.

Workforce displacement occurs when people cannot perform their usual work or cannot access their usual workplace because of disaster, conflict, epidemic disease, technological disruption, closure or relocation. Displacement may be physical, occupational or contractual. It can affect permanent staff, contingent workers, migrants, volunteers and supply-chain personnel differently.

An ethical displacement response should address:

• continuity of pay, benefits and employment status where feasible;
• safe accommodation, transport and family support;
• accessible communication in relevant languages and formats;
• remote-work equipment and digital inclusion;
• redeployment, retraining and recognition of transferable skills;
• protection against discrimination, exploitation and retaliation;
• consultation before major changes to duties or location.

Workforce metrics require interpretation. A fall in absenteeism may represent recovery, fear of reporting or coercive attendance. A rise may indicate illness, but also improved trust in leave systems. Data should be disaggregated by role, location, employment type, gender, disability and other relevant characteristics only where lawful, necessary and privacy-protective.

5. Duty of care and ethical governance

Duty of care is the organisation’s responsibility to take reasonable steps to prevent foreseeable harm and support people affected by its activities. Its exact legal content depends on jurisdiction, employment status and sector, but sound practice extends beyond minimum compliance. It includes physical safety, psychosocial health, non-discrimination, privacy, competent supervision and access to assistance.

A crisis duty-of-care system should include the following layers:

Duty of care is not unlimited risk elimination. It requires proportionate, evidence-informed controls and continual review. Organisations should record decisions, assumptions and unresolved risks. They should also make clear which support is available confidentially and who can access personal information.

Confidentiality is particularly important in employee assistance and mental-health support. Managers generally need to know functional information—such as whether an employee can safely perform a task—not a diagnosis or private counselling content. Information sharing should be lawful, necessary, secure and limited to the stated purpose.

Internationally recognised management guidance, such as ISO 45003 on psychological health and safety at work, can assist systematic practice. It should complement, not replace, local occupational-health, equality, employment and data-protection requirements.

6. Resilient teams and inclusive leadership

Resilient teams do not avoid pressure; they maintain coordination and adapt under pressure. Their characteristics include a shared purpose, clear but flexible roles, cross-training, mutual monitoring, rapid information exchange, constructive challenge and recovery routines.

A practical team cycle is:

1. Orient: establish what is known, unknown, urgent and ethically non-negotiable.
2. Allocate: assign authority, tasks, backups and escalation routes.
3. Coordinate: use briefings, check-backs, shared records and closed-loop communication.
4. Adapt: revise the plan when conditions or evidence change.
5. Recover: stand down safely, rest personnel and capture learning.

Inclusive leadership improves this cycle by ensuring that expertise is not confused with rank. Cultural, linguistic, gender, disability, age and professional differences can affect access to information and willingness to speak. Inclusion requires practical design: accessible alerts, interpreters where needed, reasonable adjustments, flexible scheduling, representative consultation and attention to workers who are geographically or digitally isolated.

Leaders should avoid both tokenism and paternalism. Representation does not automatically provide influence, and “protecting” a group by excluding it from meaningful work may increase inequity. Inclusive leadership combines equal respect with differentiated support based on actual needs.

A simple team-risk conversation

At the beginning of a high-pressure shift, a supervisor can ask:

• What has changed since the last briefing?
• What are we most concerned about?
• Which assumptions may be wrong?
• Who has relevant expertise or constraints that have not been heard?
• What would make it easier or safer to report a problem?
• When will we pause, rotate or escalate?

These questions create a routine in which voice and recovery are operational requirements rather than optional acts of kindness.

7. Employee assistance and psychosocial support

Employee assistance programmes (EAPs) may provide confidential counselling, referral, financial or legal guidance, crisis support and practical resources. Their value depends on accessibility, trust, cultural competence, qualified providers and clear confidentiality arrangements. A poorly communicated EAP may be underused; a programme perceived as surveillance may cause harm.

A comprehensive support architecture should combine:

• universal information and psychoeducation;
• supervisor training in supportive conversations and referral;
• confidential professional services;
• peer support with boundaries and supervision;
• occupational-health assessment;
• specialist pathways for suicide risk, violence, substance use or severe trauma;
• practical assistance with housing, transport, childcare and finances.

Peer supporters should not be expected to diagnose, provide therapy or remain continuously available. They need selection criteria, training, supervision, referral protocols and protection from secondary trauma.

Support should be offered proactively after critical incidents, but participation should generally be voluntary except where immediate safety or legal obligations require intervention. Follow-up is essential because distress may emerge after operational demands subside.

8. Measuring workforce resilience without reducing people to metrics

Measurement supports decisions when it is purposeful, valid and ethically governed. Possible indicators include sickness absence, turnover, overtime, incident reporting, time to close reports, participation in support services, workload, perceived psychological safety, recovery time and retention of critical skills.

A simple absenteeism rate can be expressed as:

Absence hours and scheduled hours must use the same period and unit, and the organisation must define whether authorised leave, public holidays, parental leave or injury-related absence are included. The measure describes absence; it does not explain its cause.

A reporting rate may similarly be calculated as:

The denominator and time period must be specified. Comparing departments is misleading if their exposure, reporting channels or task complexity differ. A higher reporting rate may indicate greater hazard—or healthier voice.

Qualitative evidence is indispensable. Confidential interviews, listening sessions, after-action reviews and narrative analysis can reveal fear, exclusion and workarounds that dashboards miss. Data should be aggregated where possible, access-controlled and retained only as long as necessary. Small groups may require suppression or careful interpretation to prevent re-identification.

9. Technology and AI in workforce support

Digital tools can improve crisis communication, provide multilingual information, support rostering, identify staffing gaps and connect workers with assistance. Wearables and scheduling systems may help detect fatigue risks when used transparently and with consent or lawful authority.

AI-enabled systems create significant governance risks. Predicting “resilience,” emotional state or likely absence from opaque behavioural data can reproduce bias, punish vulnerable workers and confuse correlation with diagnosis. Automated decisions about deployment, promotion, discipline or access to support should not be based solely on inferred psychological characteristics. Organisations need human review, explainability proportionate to risk, data minimisation, bias testing, security controls and an appeal process.

Technology should reduce cognitive and administrative load, not turn well-being into continuous surveillance. Workers should know what data are collected, why they are collected, who can access them and how decisions can be challenged.

10. Illustrative case: Riverside Medical Centre after a flood

Background

Riverside Medical Centre is a fictional regional hospital serving 180,000 people. A major flood closes roads, damages staff housing and increases emergency admissions. The hospital activates its incident-management structure. Staff work extended shifts, some sleep on site and several departments rely on agency personnel.

Problem

During the first week, formal absence appears low, but medication errors and interpersonal conflict rise. Junior nurses report that they are afraid to question senior clinicians. Staff with disabilities cannot access temporary sleeping areas. A contractor is excluded from safety briefings because managers assume the contractor’s employer will provide information. After ten days, resignations and unplanned absences increase sharply.

Analysis

The initial dashboard treated attendance as evidence of resilience. It missed presenteeism, fatigue, exclusion and weak psychological safety. The hospital also treated welfare as an individual counselling issue rather than a work-design and governance problem. A confidential listening process identified four interacting risks: excessive shifts, inaccessible accommodation, unclear escalation authority and fear of blame.

Approach

The incident director introduced maximum shift limits and protected handover periods, even though this temporarily reduced available staffing. A rotating relief pool was created, and agency staff received the same briefings and reporting rights as permanent staff. Accessible accommodation and transport were arranged. Each shift began with a structured safety conversation, and leaders published responses to reported concerns within 48 hours where possible.

An independent occupational-health provider offered confidential assessment and referral. Peer supporters were trained but were not used as substitutes for clinicians. A just-culture review examined medication errors, separating system contributors from reckless conduct. Staff representatives and disability advisers joined daily workforce planning.

Outcome

After four weeks, reported concerns increased, which leaders initially interpreted cautiously rather than as deterioration. Errors declined, rest compliance improved and staff surveys indicated greater confidence in escalation. Some employees still required extended leave, and the hospital retained a specialist referral pathway. The review found that improved reporting preceded operational improvement; silence had been mistaken for stability.

Learning points

1. Attendance is not the same as fitness for duty.
2. Workforce resilience depends on rest, accessibility and fair voice.
3. Contractors and temporary workers are part of the operational system.
4. An increase in reporting may be evidence of improved trust.
5. Support services cannot compensate for unsafe work design.
6. Ethical review should examine conditions and decisions, not only outcomes.

11. Implementation framework for leaders

A leader seeking to strengthen resilient culture can use a staged approach:

Diagnose. Map critical roles, vulnerable groups, psychosocial hazards, reporting routes and likely displacement scenarios. Review both quantitative and qualitative evidence.

Design. Set minimum standards for rest, communication, accessibility, privacy, escalation and professional referral. Include workers and representatives in design.

Exercise. Test plans through realistic scenarios involving fatigue, bereavement, family disruption, language barriers, contractor coordination and conflicting ethical duties.

Respond. Communicate frequently, acknowledge uncertainty, protect recovery time, monitor workload and make reporting safe. Do not promise support that cannot be delivered.

Recover. Provide practical and clinical support, restore normal governance gradually, recognise contributions without glorifying overwork, and offer fair processes for compensation or redeployment.

Learn. Conduct psychologically informed after-action reviews. Ask what happened, why it made sense at the time, who was affected, what assumptions failed and what should change. Track whether agreed improvements are implemented.

Challenges and limitations

Workforce well-being programmes face several limitations. First, psychological safety is difficult to measure through a single survey because responses vary with timing, trust and local leadership. Second, resilience language can be misused to shift responsibility from organisations to individuals. Third, support programmes may be inaccessible to shift workers, contractors, remote staff or people who distrust management. Fourth, data about mental health are highly sensitive and can cause harm if used for selection or discipline. Fifth, there may be genuine conflicts between continuity, safety, fairness and financial survival; no framework removes the need for judgement.

Leaders should also recognise cultural differences in expressing distress, seeking help and interpreting authority. Standardised programmes require local adaptation without lowering professional standards. Finally, post-crisis recognition must avoid celebrating extreme sacrifice. If heroism becomes the implicit staffing model, the organisation institutionalises exhaustion.

Contemporary professional guidance

Practice should be aligned with applicable national law and sector requirements. Useful reference points include the World Health Organization’s guidance on mental health at work, the WHO classification of burnout as an occupational phenomenon, ISO 45003 on psychological health and safety, ISO 22301 on business continuity management, and national occupational-health, equality and data-protection guidance. These sources provide principles and management systems; they do not replace clinical judgement, worker consultation or local legal advice.

Chapter Summary

Human factors are a core capability of crisis management because people interpret uncertainty, coordinate action, report hazards and sustain recovery. Psychological safety enables voice, fair challenge and organisational learning, but it must coexist with evidence-based accountability. Stress, trauma, burnout and moral injury are related but distinct phenomena requiring different forms of prevention and support. Absenteeism and presenteeism must be interpreted carefully, while workforce displacement requires practical, inclusive and legally informed assistance.

Duty of care extends across prevention, preparedness, response, recovery and governance. Resilient teams depend on clear roles, cross-training, mutual monitoring, inclusive leadership and structured recovery. Employee assistance is most effective when combined with safe work design, professional referral and practical support. Metrics can inform decisions, but they cannot substitute for qualitative listening and ethical interpretation. Technology and AI may improve coordination, yet opaque surveillance and automated psychological inference create serious risks. A resilient culture is built when leaders make it safe to report, fair to learn, possible to rest and legitimate to adapt.

Key Terms

Human factors: Psychological, social, organisational and physical conditions influencing human performance.

Organisational resilience: Capacity to anticipate, absorb, adapt to and recover from disruption.

Psychological safety: Shared belief that people can speak up, ask questions and report concerns without unjust interpersonal punishment.

Occupational stress: Response arising when perceived work demands threaten to exceed perceived resources.

Trauma: Psychological impact of an event experienced as threatening, horrifying or overwhelming.

Post-traumatic stress disorder: A clinically diagnosed condition involving persistent trauma-related symptoms and impairment.

Burnout: Occupational phenomenon involving exhaustion, mental distance or cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy.

Moral injury: Distress associated with violating, witnessing or being unable to prevent serious violations of moral beliefs.

Moral distress: Knowing an ethically appropriate action but being unable to take it because of constraints.

Absenteeism: Absence from scheduled work.

Presenteeism: Attendance while illness, exhaustion or distress impairs functioning.

Workforce displacement: Inability to perform usual work or access the usual workplace because of disruption.

Duty of care: Responsibility to take reasonable steps to prevent foreseeable harm and support affected people.

Just culture: Approach that promotes learning and fair accountability by considering behaviour and context.

Employee assistance programme: Confidential service offering counselling, referral and practical support.

Inclusive leadership: Leadership that enables participation, respect and influence across differences.

After-action review: Structured examination of events, decisions, conditions and improvements after an operation.

Work-as-done: How work is actually performed under real conditions.

Review Questions

Short Answer Questions

1. What is psychological safety, and why is it important during a crisis?
2. Distinguish burnout from ordinary short-term tiredness.
3. What is the difference between absenteeism and presenteeism?
4. Identify four dimensions of organisational duty of care.
5. Why should an increase in incident reporting not automatically be interpreted as worsening performance?

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain how work design, leadership and organisational culture interact to influence workforce well-being during prolonged crises.
2. Compare stress, trauma, burnout and moral injury, and propose an appropriate organisational response to each.
3. Evaluate the role of employee assistance programmes within a wider psychosocial-support architecture.
4. Discuss how inclusive leadership can improve coordination and ethical decision-making in crisis teams.
5. Critically assess the advantages and limitations of using workforce metrics to evaluate organisational resilience.

Analytical / Application Questions

1. A logistics company reports low absence during a six-week emergency, but overtime, near misses and resignations are increasing. Diagnose the likely human-factor risks and design a 30-day intervention.
2. An organisation wants to use AI to predict which employees are “resilient” enough for crisis deployment. Evaluate the proposal using principles of privacy, fairness, validity and human oversight.
3. After a hospital incident, managers want to discipline the employee closest to the error. Develop a fair-review process that examines individual accountability, system conditions, psychological safety and organisational learning.

Multiple Choice Questions with Answers

Question 1

Which statement best describes psychological safety?

A. A guarantee that employees will never face performance consequences

B. A shared belief that people can raise concerns and admit uncertainty without unjust interpersonal punishment

C. A counselling service provided after traumatic events

D. A method for eliminating all workplace stress

Correct Answer: B. A shared belief that people can raise concerns and admit uncertainty without unjust interpersonal punishment

Question 2

Which combination is characteristic of burnout?

A. Exhaustion, mental distance or cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy

B. Short-term excitement, high autonomy, and increased creativity

C. Physical injury, financial loss, and workforce displacement

D. Absence, recruitment, and retirement

Correct Answer: A. Exhaustion, mental distance or cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy

Question 3

Why can low absenteeism during a crisis be misleading?

A. Absence is always unrelated to well-being

B. Employees may be attending work while exhausted or impaired

C. Low absenteeism proves that staffing is adequate

D. Absenteeism measures psychological safety directly

Correct Answer: B. Employees may be attending work while exhausted or impaired

Question 4

Which is an appropriate principle for handling employee mental-health information?

A. Share diagnoses with all supervisors to improve coordination

B. Collect as much personal data as possible for future analysis

C. Limit access to information that is lawful, necessary and relevant to safe work

D. Use counselling records to rank employee resilience

Correct Answer: C. Limit access to information that is lawful, necessary and relevant to safe work

Question 5

What is the primary purpose of a just-culture review?

A. To ensure that someone is punished after every incident

B. To replace all professional standards with personal judgement

C. To examine behaviour and system conditions while supporting fair accountability and learning

D. To prevent employees from reporting mistakes

Correct Answer: C. To examine behaviour and system conditions while supporting fair accountability and learning

Question 6

Which action best supports an inclusive crisis team?

A. Restricting information to permanent senior employees

B. Providing accessible communication and including relevant expertise regardless of rank or contract

C. Using one communication format for everyone

D. Excluding workers with caring responsibilities from planning

Correct Answer: B. Providing accessible communication and including relevant expertise regardless of rank or contract

Question 7

An organisation records 240 absence hours and 12,000 scheduled work hours in one month. Using the chapter’s formula, what is the absenteeism rate?

A. 0.2%

B. 2%

C. 5%

D. 20%

Correct Answer: B. 2%

Question 8

Which response is most appropriate immediately after a potentially traumatic incident?

A. Require all affected workers to describe the event in a group session

B. Prioritise safety, practical assistance, reliable information and access to qualified support

C. Tell workers to suppress emotional reactions until operations end

D. Diagnose post-traumatic stress through a supervisor checklist

Correct Answer: B. Prioritise safety, practical assistance, reliable information and access to qualified support

Question 9

Why might a higher reporting rate indicate improved organisational resilience?

A. It may show that employees trust the reporting process and feel safer speaking up

B. It proves that the number of hazards has increased by the same percentage

C. It means that all reports are accurate and substantiated

D. It demonstrates that psychological safety is no longer needed

Correct Answer: A. It may show that employees trust the reporting process and feel safer speaking up

Question 10

What is a major governance risk of using AI to infer employee psychological resilience?

A. It necessarily eliminates bias from workforce decisions

B. It may produce opaque, inaccurate or discriminatory decisions from sensitive behavioural data

C. It guarantees confidentiality because algorithms are neutral

D. It prevents managers from making any decisions

Correct Answer: B. It may produce opaque, inaccurate or discriminatory decisions from sensitive behavioural data